1 16 Foreign and Defense Policy The White House/Handou/Getty Images 1

2 Isolationism in the Early Republic16 Isolationism in the Early Republic The largest foreign policy challenge of the young republic was charting a safe course between European giants Great Britain and France. This was complicated by the fact that Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson disagreed; Hamilton wanted policies that favored the British, while Jefferson favored France. Given these conflicts, young America, led by George Washington, embraced a policy of neutrality and isolationism. Washington, in his farewell address, urged Americans to steer clear of "entangling alliances." When peace was established between France and Great Britain, Americans feared one or both countries would try to re-establish power in the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine declared that any attempt to expand in this area would be seen as a danger to American safety. Isolationism George Washington's Farewell Address “steer clear of permanent alliances" Great Britain v. France Hamilton favored British who supported Native American tribes opposing Westward expansion. Jefferson favored French who helped us defeat British. Monroe Doctrine Warned European powers to stay away from the Western Hemisphere

3 The United States as an Emerging Power16 The United States as an Emerging Power So, neutrality was the way early America did business. When it came to trade and commerce, the U.S. treated foreign traders the same way the traders treated Americans. Those countries that received most favored nation status were guaranteed the lowest tariffs on their imports. This lasted until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, when global trading increased. Meanwhile, the U.S. was expanding across the continent by acquiring vast tracts of land. Manifest Destiny, the belief that God intended the U.S. to stretch from sea to sea, drove this expansion. By the the 20th century, the U.S. was clearly dominating the Western Hemisphere. The Roosevelt Corollary revised the Monroe Doctrine; it stated that the U.S. was responsible for the stability of Latin America and the Caribbean. In terms of Asia, we took different paths for different countries. We sought open door policies for China, but tried to contain Japan through a series of international agreements. The U.S. in much of the XIX Century, gained territory, developed economically, and emerged as a world power. The process centered on these four areas: Trade Policy and Commerce Tariffs – lowest possible given to foreign traders Continental Expansion and Manifest Destiny Major land takings and purchases Divine plan for expansion to the Pacific Dominance over the Western Hemisphere Roosevelt Corollary – Revision of Monroe Doctrine, US was responsible for defending Latin America and the Caribbean Interests in Asia

4 World War I & II and Its Aftermath16 World War I & II and Its Aftermath As you know, the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. Once the war was over, we helped create the United Nations, which replaced the League of Nations, and became permanent members of the Security Council. During this time, President Franklin D. Roosevelt took an active role in diplomacy by engineering conferences with world leaders. Americans also sought to develop instruments of economic peace to encourage and manage global trade and finance. Thus, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade were established. U.N. Security Council America's role: "leader of the free world" President Franklin D. Roosevelt Active role in diplomacy. Attended Yalta Conference helped decide future of Germany & Eastern Europe Economic Peace International Monetary Fund (IMF) – stabilize international currency transactions World Bank – helped the world to recover from WWII General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – Evolved into the World Trade Organization to facilitate international and promote free trade

5 The Cold War and Containment16 The Cold War and Containment The Cold War became the defining feature of the international system from the end of World War II all the way up to the collapse of communism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. American foreign policy at this time centered on two philosophies: containment and deterrence. The policy of containment was used to oppose Soviet expansion around the world. We pursued deterrence by stockpiling enough nuclear weapons to convince the Soviets that any use of weapons on their part would end in "mutually assured destruction." Cold War Defining feature of the international system from the end of World War II to collapse of communism in late 1980s and early 1990s Containment Opposition to Soviet expansion Deterrence Stockpile of nuclear weapons "Mutually assured destruction" (MAD)

6 The Cold War in Europe 16 Truman Doctrine Marshall PlanAmerican policy of providing economic and military aid to countries fighting communism Marshall Plan American financing of post-war rebuilding of Europe North Atlantic Treaty Organization Collective security pact w/ U.S., Canada & Western Europe Soviets retaliated with Warsaw Pact w/ Eastern Europe allies. Germany in the middle! Berlin Wall Divided communist East Berlin from democratic West Berlin American foreign policy also became known for helping other countries after the war. Under the Truman Doctrine, the United States provided economic and military aid to countries fighting communism. Under the Marshall Plan, the United States financed the post-war rebuilding of Europe. In 1949, the United States, Canada, and Western Europe joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. NATO was a collective security pact. In retaliation, the Soviet Union organized Eastern Europe under the Warsaw Pact and further divided Europe by building the Berlin Wall, dividing communist East Berlin from democratic West Berlin.

7 The Cold War in Latin America16 The Cold War in Latin America The Cold War in Latin America was defined by Cuba. Fidel Castro came to power in Two years later, the United Sates approved a plan to send exiled Cubans into Cuba to conduct guerrilla warfare against the communist government. The plan was a disaster, and the exiles were quickly defeated at the Bay of Pigs by Cuban soldiers. The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world has ever come to nuclear warfare. President John F. Kennedy established a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent the installation of Soviet missiles. The standoff lasted two weeks, until the Soviets backed down. Cuba Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 Bay of Pigs, 1961 Disastrous attempt to send armed exiles back to Cuba Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 Closest world has been to nuclear war President Kennedy established naval blockade of Cuba to prevent installation of Soviet missiles Lasted two weeks; Soviets backed down.

8 The End of the Cold War 16 Reagan DoctrineCommitment to combating communism by providing military aid to anti-communist groups Nicaragua & Afghanistan Reagan authorized creation of the Contras, an armed guerrilla group, to fight communist Sandinista government in Nicaragua Increased military aid to mujahedeen from $120m in 84’ to $630m by 87’ contributed to Soviet defeat and withdrawal in that area Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms Soviet leader's economic and political reforms meant to strengthen communism actually led to its defeat President Reagan had promised to restore U.S. military strength. The Reagan Doctrine, as it came to be called, was a commitment to combating communism by providing military aid to anti-communist groups. In what became known as the Ira-Contra affair, Reagan had authorized the creation of the Contras, an armed guerrilla group, to block the communist Sandinista government in Nicaragua. Money for this operation was raised by illegally selling arms to Iranian militants. Following congressional hearings, members of Reagan's administration were fired and convicted. Also around this time, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated a series of political and economic reforms meant to strengthen communism, but which ultimately led to the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe. Two years later, the Soviet Union collapsed and broke apart.

9 The Post–Cold War World16 The Post–Cold War World Persian Gulf War – Desert Storm U.S. drove Iraq out of its oil-rich neighbour, Kuwait China U.S. sought stronger ties w/ China. China killed 000’s of pro-democracy demonstrators on Tiananmen. U.S. imposed sanctions & suspended political contact President Bill Clinton Democratic enlargement: actively promoting expansion of democracy and free markets Secured Senate approval for NAFTA – free goods and services between U.S., Canada and Mexico. Completed negotiations that led to WTO Replacing GATT – Gen. Agreement on Tariffs & Trade President George H. W. Bush was the first American president to lead the U.S. in the post-Cold War world. It soon became clear what a world without two superpowers would be like: Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, and in January 1991, Operation Desert Storm began. The United States sought stronger ties to China, but that process was interrupted when China attacked pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square in 1989, killing hundreds of people. President Bill Clinton sought to define a clear role for the United States in a post-Soviet Union world. He pushed for democratic enlargement, which meant actively promoting the expansion of democracy and free markets. This foreign policy got us involved in human rights fights around the world, most notably Somalia and Kosovo. Economic enlargement at this time centered primarily on the issue of trade and the expansion of globalization. The World Trade Organization replaced the GATT.

10 September 11, 2001 and the War on Terrorism16 September 11, 2001 and the War on Terrorism President George W. Bush distanced himself from the Clinton expansionist policies that had led to U.S. intervention in foreign humanitarian crises. He rejected the international global warming treaty known as the Kyoto Protocol and refused to participate in other international efforts. On September 11, 2001, 19 members of the terrorist group al-Qaeda headed by Osama bin Laden hijacked four planes. Two crashed into the World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon and one in a field in Pennsylvania. This sparked the global war on terrorism. The U.S. sent troops into Afghanistan to force the Taliban government to expel al-Qaeda. Although the government fell, terrorist groups remained as guerrilla fighters, and U.S. troops remained to fight them. Activity: Ask the students to prepare an impromptu debate on the U.S. presence in Afghanistan. Choose two teams of four students to serve as opposing sides in the debate. Give them ten minutes to prepare arguments. Allot total debate time according to the demands of your class schedule. Ask the remaining students to act as debate judges. September 11 and the War in Afghanistan 19 members of al-Qaeda hijacked four commercial airplanes Two crashed into World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon and one in field in Pennsylvania Several hijackers trained at the Lantana airport about a mile from campus Led to creation of Department of Homeland Security

11 Foreign & Defense Policy Decision Making The Constitution16 Foreign & Defense Policy Decision Making The Constitution The framers of the Constitution granted power to make foreign policy to the national government, not the states. They further divided authority for foreign policy between the president and Congress. The president is commander in chief of the military, but Congress funds the military and formally declares war. The president appoints ambassadors and other key foreign policy officials, while the Senate confirms those appointments. Constitutional Convention Foreign policy powers granted to the national government, not the states Foreign policy powers divided between the president and Congress President is commander in chief but Congress funds military and declares war President appoints ambassadors, subject to Senate approval

12 Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making The Executive Branch16 The President Preeminent in foreign and defense policy Relies on National Security Council The Departments of State, Defense and Homeland Security State formulates foreign policy Defense formulates military policy w/ Joint Chiefs of Staff (Army CoS, Air Force CoS, C of Naval operations & Marine commandant). Homeland straddles both policies & utilizes TSA, FEMA, Customs, Coast Guard, Secret Service and immigration services The intelligence community Agencies involved in the collection and analysis of information include Director of Natl. Intelligence (DNI), CIA, State, Defense Intelligence Agency, NSA, Defense, FBI, Homeland Security. The executive branch determines foreign and defense policy. The president relies on the expertise of the National Security Council and his cabinet. The Department of State is generally in charge of formulating foreign policy. The Department of Defense formulates military policy, and the Department of Homeland Security straddles both policies. The intelligence community comprises all the agencies involved in the collection and analysis of information. The Central Intelligence Agency had been the head of the intelligence community until the Director of National Intelligence was created after the 9/11 attacks. The DNI is aided in its efforts by the FBI, The Department of Homeland Security, and the National Security Agency.

13 Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making Congress16 Oversight Hearings to monitor agency actions or for "Fact-finding" missions abroad Treaties and Executive Agreements Treaties need Senate approval, exec. agreements not. Appointments Senate's responsibility to provide advice, consent on appointing those involved in foreign and defense policy Appropriations Can cut funding for military action Congress does not have as much influence over foreign policy as the president does. It can hold hearings to monitor agency actions and conduct "fact-finding" missions abroad. Treaties require Senate approval, and it is rare that the Senate does not approve them. Presidents have used executive agreements when they want to avoid getting the Senate's approval. These executive agreements usually deal with routine foreign matters, but they have also involved major military commitments. The Senate does approve key presidential foreign policy appointments, however, and it also controls financing, so it could, in theory, cut funding for a military operation. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution to place restraints on the executive branch in conducting military interventions in foreign countries. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of most troop overseas deployment. Most presidents have ignored the resolution, but its constitutionality has not been tested in the courts.

14 Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making Congress16 Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making Congress Congress does not have as much influence over foreign policy as the president does. It can hold hearings to monitor agency actions and conduct "fact-finding" missions abroad. Treaties require Senate approval, and it is rare that the Senate does not approve them. Presidents have used executive agreements when they want to avoid getting the Senate's approval. These executive agreements usually deal with routine foreign matters, but they have also involved major military commitments. The Senate does approve key presidential foreign policy appointments, however, and it also controls financing, so it could, in theory, cut funding for a military operation. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution to place restraints on the executive branch in conducting military interventions in foreign countries. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of most troop overseas deployment. Most presidents have ignored the resolution, but its constitutionality has not been tested in the courts. The War Powers Resolution President reports to Congress within 48 hours of troop deployment Triggers a 60 day clock requiring senate approval after 60 days. Without approval president has 30 days to withdraw troops Has not been an effective restraint on presidential military authority.

15 16 FIGURE 18.1 How Has Defense Spending Changed Over Time?Defense spending was at its highest absolute levels during World War II. Today, as a result of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, it continues to stand at relatively high levels, about $644 billion constant dollars in 2010. Source: Mackenzie Eaglen, "U.S. Defense Spending: The Mismatch Between Plans and Resources," The Heritage Foundation (June 7, 2010):

16 Contemporary Challenges: Trade16 Contemporary Challenges: Trade When it comes to trade, countries tend to be protectionist, or engage in either strategic trade or free trade, although many countries mix some or all of these into their policies. Under protectionism, a country limits the import of foreign goods. Under strategic policy, governments target industries they want to see grow and support them using tax breaks or other benefits. Under free trade, there is limited government interference in trade. To make trade policy, countries may follow one of three models. Bilateral trade agreements are between two countries. Regional trade agreements involve more than two countries but can be as few as three. The North American Free Trade Agreement, or NAFTA, is an example. Finally, there are global free trade agreements, such as the World Trade Organization. In its bilateral trade relationship with the U.S., China has grown dramatically over the last three decades, but there are three issues of concern: the loss of American jobs, the trade deficit, and the safety of Chinese imports. Making Trade Policy Countries adopt one of three basic approaches to international trade: Protectionism – limit imports of foreign goods Strategic trade – Identify key industries for growth Free trade – limited government interference in international trade The Case of China Bilateral trade relationship has grown dramatically over past three decades leads to 3 issues of concern Loss of American jobs – less US manufacturing from cheap imports Trade deficit - $295B in 2011 Safety of Chinese imports incl. pet foods, toys & drywall

17 16 FIGURE 18.2 Who are the United States' major trading partners?The United States exports more goods to Canada than any other country. China, Mexico, and Japan also account for large shares of U.S. exports. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Statistics.

18 Contemporary Challenges: Terrorism16 Contemporary Challenges: Terrorism Terrorism can be defined as violence designed to achieve political intimidation and instil fear. Countries like the U.S. have four key tools in crafting counterterrorism policy. It can use diplomacy, military power, economic power, such as sanctions, and covert actions. Al-Qaeda is a militant Islamic terrorist group founded in Pakistan in the late 1980s. Its initial purpose was to conduct a Jihad, or holy war, in the name of the Islamic religion, particularly against the Soviet Union, which had invaded and attempted to occupy the Muslim nation of Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda and its leader, Osama bin Laden, later vehemently objected to the intrusion of U.S. troops in the Muslim holy land of Saudi Arabia. From a base in Afghanistan, al-Qaeda under the direction of bin Laden launched a series of attacks against U.S. interests. These attacks first focused on U.S. military and diplomatic targets in the Middle East and Africa, and then culminated in the devastating attacks on New York and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001. Current terrorism is based on extremist Islamic groups. The U.S. has been the target of this religious wave of terrorism, designed to drive the U.S. out of the Middle East. Making counterterrorism policy: the 4D strategy Defeat terrorist organizations Deny them support from rogue states Diminish conditions that give rise to them Defend U.S., citizens and foreign interest from attack The case of al-Qaeda Militant Islamic terrorist group founded in Pakistan in late 1980s Headed by Osama bin Laden at time of September 11, 2001 attacks Now more decentralized – Morph into ISIS?

19 Nuclear Weapons 16 Three reason a country goes “Nuke”Defense International influence & prestige Domestic politics/pressure from military Making arms proliferation policy Disarmament – eliminates the means of conflict Arms control – Tries to find ways to prevent conflict from becoming deadly Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile, Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT I&II in the 70’s), Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START I&II in the 90’s). Denial – Prevent states from gaining Counterproliferation – Pre-emptive military action Nuclear Weapons Countries pursue nuclear power to provide for their defense without having to rely on other countries. They may seek the international influence that comes with possession of nuclear power, and they may bend to domestic pressures to gain the weapons. In response, countries like the U.S. have developed arms proliferation policies. These tend to take one of three forms. Disarmament sees the weapons themselves as a source of conflict and thus seeks to get rid of them entirely. Arms control accepts that there will be nuclear weapons but seeks to reduce the chances that they will be used by decreasing the number and type in existence. Denial seeks to prevent would-be nuclear powers from getting the technology they need to build a bomb. Finally, counterproliferation uses preemptive military action against a country or terrorist group. While there are almost no direct diplomatic talks between the U.S. and North Korea, there have been various talks to monitor North Korea's nuclear program. In 2010, the United States called for an end to North Korea's nuclear weapons and missile programs. Confrontation between the two nations appears likely in the foreseeable future.