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2 18 Foreign and Defense Policy The White House/Handou/Getty Images 2

3 18 Learning Objectives In this chapter, we will learn how American foreign policy has evolved from isolationism to becoming engaged in international conflicts. When do we decide that diplomacy has failed, and force is needed? How do our economic policies affect our relationships with other countries? In this chapter we will look at how these questions, and their evolving answers, have affected U.S. foreign and defense policy. Trace the evolution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. 18.1 Explain U.S. foreign policy as the country rose to become a world power. 18.2

4 18 Learning Objectives Outline the factors that shape foreign and defense policy decision making. 18.3 Identify contemporary and defense policy challenges confronting the United States. 18.4

5 18 Learning Objectives Understand emerging challenges to American foreign policy that have arisen in recent years. 18.5

6 Roots of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy18.1 Roots of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy When we talk of foreign and defense policy we need to define exactly what we mean. Foreign policy relates to how one country builds relationships with other countries to protect its national interests. Defense policy, on the other hand, is the collection of strategies a country uses to protect itself from its enemies. In this section we will look at both of these policies and their roots in American history. Isolationism in the Early Republic The United States as an Emerging Power World War I and the Interwar Years

7 Isolationism in the Early Republic18.1 Isolationism in the Early Republic The largest foreign policy challenge of the young republic was charting a safe course between European giants Great Britain and France. This was complicated by the fact that Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson disagreed; Hamilton wanted policies that favored the British, while Jefferson favored France. Given these conflicts, young America, led by George Washington, embraced a policy of neutrality and isolationism. Washington, in his farewell address, urged Americans to steer clear of "entangling alliances." When peace was established between France and Great Britain, Americans feared one or both countries would try to re-establish power in the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine declared that any attempt to expand in this area would be seen as a danger to American safety. Great Britain v. France Hamilton favored British. Jefferson favored French. Isolationism Sidestepping "entangling alliances" George Washington's Farewell Address Monroe Doctrine Warned European powers to stay away from the Western Hemisphere

8 The United States as an Emerging Power18.1 The United States as an Emerging Power So, neutrality was the way early America did business. When it came to trade and commerce, the U.S. treated foreign traders the same way the traders treated Americans. Those countries that received most favored nation status were guaranteed the lowest tariffs on their imports. This lasted until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, when global trading increased. Meanwhile, the U.S. was expanding across the continent by acquiring vast tracts of land. Manifest Destiny, the belief that God intended the U.S. to stretch from sea to sea, drove this expansion. By the the 20th century, the U.S. was clearly dominating the Western Hemisphere. The Roosevelt Corollary revised the Monroe Doctrine; it stated that the U.S. was responsible for the stability of Latin America and the Caribbean. In terms of Asia, we took different paths for different countries. We sought open door policies for China, but tried to contain Japan through a series of international agreements. Trade Policy and Commerce Tariffs Most favored nation status Continental Expansion and Manifest Destiny Major land takings and purchases Divine plan for expansion to the Pacific Dominance over the Western Hemisphere Roosevelt Corollary Interests in Asia

9 18.1 How Did the Roosevelt Corollary Affect American Foreign Policy?In this political cartoon, President Theodore Roosevelt is shown policing Panama, carrying the "big stick" of military intervention proposed by the Roosevelt Corollary. Bettmann/CORBIS

10 World War I and the Interwar Years18.1 World War I and the Interwar Years The United States initially remained neutral when World War I broke out. America was a nation of European immigrants, and so many were deeply divided on the issue. But when German submarines sank U.S. ships carrying supplies to Great Britain and France, President Woodrow Wilson declared in 1917 that the U.S. would fight "to make the world safe for democracy." Wilson succeeded in establishing a League of Nations based on the principle of "collective security," that an attack on one nation was an attack on all nations, but he failed to gain support at home and the United States did not join. The time between the two world wars was defined both by disarmament—getting other countries to limit arms—and by isolationism. U.S. initially neutral European immigrants to U.S. deeply divided about the war German submarine warfare Wilson: fighting "to make the world safe for democracy" U.S. entered war in 1917 League of Nations "Collective security" Disarmament and Isolationism

11 18.1 18.1 The declaration that the U.S. was responsible for security in Latin America and the Caribbean was: Let's see what you have learned so far about the evolution of U.S. foreign policy. Can you identify the correct answer? The Monroe Doctrine The Roosevelt Corollary The League of Nations None of the above

12 18.1 18.1 The declaration that the U.S. was responsible for security in Latin America and the Caribbean was: The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine declared that the United States would ensure stability in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Monroe Doctrine The Roosevelt Corollary The League of Nations None of the above

13 The United States as a World Power18.2 The United States as a World Power The Untied States became a true world power at the end of World War II. American political leaders guided the nation through the Cold War and post-Cold War periods. Now American leaders must work to take us through a world rapidly changing through globalization. In this section, we will explore American foreign policy since World War II. World War II and Its Aftermath The Cold War and Containment The Post-Cold War World September 11, 2001 and the War on Terrorism The War in Iraq

14 World War II and Its Aftermath18.2 World War II and Its Aftermath As you know, the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. Once the war was over, we helped create the United Nations, which replaced the League of Nations, and became permanent members of the Security Council. During this time, President Franklin D. Roosevelt took an active role in diplomacy by engineering conferences with world leaders. Americans also sought to develop instruments of economic peace to encourage and manage global trade and finance. Thus, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade were established. U.N. Security Council America's role: "leader of the free world" President Franklin D. Roosevelt Active role in diplomacy Economic Peace International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Bank General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

15 18.2 How Did World War II Change U.S. Foreign Policy?World War II cemented America's role as a world power. Here, President Franklin D. Roosevelt meets with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Josef Stalin at Yalta in 1945 to plan the postwar settlement. Keystone/Getty Images

16 The Cold War and Containment18.2 The Cold War and Containment Cold War Defining feature of the international system from the end of World War II to collapse of communism in late 1980s and early 1990s Containment Opposition to Soviet expansion Deterrence Stockpile of nuclear weapons "Mutually assured destruction" (MAD) The Cold War became the defining feature of the international system from the end of World War II all the way up to the collapse of communism in the late 1980s and early 1990s. American foreign policy at this time centered on two philosophies: containment and deterrence. The policy of containment was used to oppose Soviet expansion around the world. We pursued deterrence by stockpiling enough nuclear weapons to convince the Soviets that any use of weapons on their part would end in "mutually assured destruction."

17 The Cold War in Europe 18.2 Truman Doctrine Marshall PlanAmerican policy of providing economic and military aid to countries fighting communism Marshall Plan American financing of post-war rebuilding of Europe North Atlantic Treaty Organization Collective security pact Berlin Wall Divided communist East Berlin from democratic West Berlin American foreign policy also became known for helping other countries after the war. Under the Truman Doctrine, the United States provided economic and military aid to countries fighting communism. Under the Marshall Plan, the United States financed the post-war rebuilding of Europe. In 1949, the United States, Canada, and Western Europe joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. NATO was a collective security pact. In retaliation, the Soviet Union organized Eastern Europe under the Warsaw Pact and further divided Europe by building the Berlin Wall, dividing communist East Berlin from democratic West Berlin.

18 The Cold War in Latin America18.2 The Cold War in Latin America The Cold War in Latin America was defined by Cuba. Fidel Castro came to power in Two years later, the United Sates approved a plan to send exiled Cubans into Cuba to conduct guerrilla warfare against the communist government. The plan was a disaster, and the exiles were quickly defeated at the Bay of Pigs by Cuban soldiers. The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world has ever come to nuclear warfare. President John F. Kennedy established a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent the installation of Soviet missiles. The standoff lasted two weeks, until the Soviets backed down. Cuba Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 Bay of Pigs, 1961 Disastrous attempt to send armed exiles back to Cuba Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 Closest world has been to nuclear war President Kennedy established naval blockade of Cuba to prevent installation of Soviet missiles Lasted two weeks; Soviets backed down.

19 18.2 The Vietnam War Failed attempt by France to reassert colonial rule France withdrew 1954 Vietnam divided into communist North and non-communist South North tried to unify two halves by force President Lyndon B. Johnson Sent troops to fight North Conflict became unpopular with Americans President Richard M. Nixon Tried to turn over fighting to South Vietnamese Ultimately, communist North prevailed Following World War II, France tried to re- assert colonial rule in Vietnam. This failed, and France withdrew in Vietnam was divided into the communist North and the non-communist South. When the North began to unify the two halves by force, the U.S. became involved. President Johnson sent troops in to fight the North, but the conflict became increasingly unpopular with Americans at home. President Nixon set the stage for withdrawal by trying to turn responsibility for the fighting over to the South Vietnamese. In the absence of public support, U.S. forces left South Vietnam, which fell to North Vietnam.

20 Détente and Human Rights18.2 Détente and Human Rights President Richard M. Nixon In 1969 declared end to "era of confrontation" and started of "era of negotiation" with Soviets Era called détente Better relations with China Strategic Arms Limitations Treaties President Jimmy Carter Changed direction to focus on human rights Targeted the Shah of Iran Following shah's exile, radical Iranians took American embassy employees hostage The Cold War thawed a bit with Nixon, who declared in 1969 that the "era of confrontation" was over and a new "era of negotiation" with the Soviets had begun. This era was called détente. Relations also improved with China. The world also saw the Strategic Arms Limitations Treaties, which limited the stockpiling and deployment of nuclear weapons. When Jimmy Carter became president, he turned from détente to focus on human rights violations. In particular, Carter targeted the Shah of Iran as a human rights abuser. The shah was forced into exile in 1979, but radical Iranians, with the help of Islamic extremists, took American embassy employees hostage. They were not released until over a year later, when Carter left office and Ronald Reagan was sworn in as president.

21 The End of the Cold War 18.2 Reagan Doctrine NicaraguaCommitment to combating communism by providing military aid to anti-communist groups Nicaragua Reagan authorized creation of the Contras, an armed guerilla group, to fight communist Sandinista government Funded by selling arms to Iranian militants: the Iran-Contra Affair Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms Soviet leader's economic and political reforms meant to strengthen communism that led to its defeat President Reagan had promised to restore U.S. military strength. The Reagan Doctrine, as it came to be called, was a commitment to combating communism by providing military aid to anti-communist groups. In what became known as the Ira-Contra affair, Reagan had authorized the creation of the Contras, an armed guerrilla group, to block the communist Sandinista government in Nicaragua. Money for this operation was raised by illegally selling arms to Iranian militants. Following congressional hearings, members of Reagan's administration were fired and convicted. Also around this time, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated a series of political and economic reforms meant to strengthen communism, but which ultimately led to the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe. Two years later, the Soviet Union collapsed and broke apart.

22 The Post–Cold War World18.2 The Post–Cold War World Persian Gulf War Operation Desert Storm China U.S. sought stronger ties to China, however President Bill Clinton Democratic enlargement: actively promoting expansion of democracy and free markets World Trade Organization Replaced GATT President George H. W. Bush was the first American president to lead the U.S. in the post-Cold War world. It soon became clear what a world without two superpowers would be like: Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, and in January 1991, Operation Desert Storm began. The United States sought stronger ties to China, but that process was interrupted when China attacked pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square in 1989, killing hundreds of people. President Bill Clinton sought to define a clear role for the United States in a post-Soviet Union world. He pushed for democratic enlargement, which meant actively promoting the expansion of democracy and free markets. This foreign policy got us involved in human rights fights around the world, most notably Somalia and Kosovo. Economic enlargement at this time centered primarily on the issue of trade and the expansion of globalization. The World Trade Organization replaced the GATT.

23 September 11, 2001 and the War on Terrorism18.2 September 11, 2001 and the War on Terrorism President George W. Bush distanced himself from the Clinton expansionist policies that had led to U.S. intervention in foreign humanitarian crises. He rejected the international global warming treaty known as the Kyoto Protocol and refused to participate in other international efforts. On September 11, 2001, 19 members of the terrorist group al-Qaeda headed by Osama bin Laden hijacked four planes. Two crashed into the World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon and one in a field in Pennsylvania. This sparked the global war on terrorism. The U.S. sent troops into Afghanistan to force the Taliban government to expel al-Qaeda. Although the government fell, terrorist groups remained as guerrilla fighters, and U.S. troops remained to fight them. Activity: Ask the students to prepare an impromptu debate on the U.S. presence in Afghanistan. Choose two teams of four students to serve as opposing sides in the debate. Give them ten minutes to prepare arguments. Allot total debate time according to the demands of your class schedule. Ask the remaining students to act as debate judges. September 11 and the War in Afghanistan 19 members of al-Qaeda hijacked four commercial airplanes Two crashed into World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon and one in field in Pennsylvania

24 How Did the September 11 Terrorist Attacks Affect American Foreign Policy ?18.2 The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center collapsed September 11, 2001, after they were struck by hijacked airplanes. The attacks caused enormous loss of life and resulted in the beginning of an ongoing war on terrorism. Thomas Nilsson/Getty Images

25 The War in Iraq 18.2 President George W. Bush Operation Iraqi FreedomIn his 2002 State of the Union Address, President George W. Bush declared Iraq, North Korea, and Iran an "axis of evil." Not long after, Operation Iraqi Freedom began on March 19, Within a month, the capital city of Baghdad fell and Bush declared "mission accomplished." Casualties began to mount in what become a long, drawn-out war, and it wasn't until December, 2011, that the last combat forces pulled out of Iraq. President George W. Bush Broader foreign policy agenda emerged in 2002 Bush declared Iraq, North Korea, and Iran an "axis of evil" Operation Iraqi Freedom Divided Americans Not intended to be a long-drawn out war Last American combat forces left in December, 2011

26 18.2 18.2 Democratic enlargement, the expansion of democracy and free markets, was embraced by which president? Let's see what you have learned about foreign policy during and after the Cold War. Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan Bill Clinton George W. Bush

27 18.2 18.2 Democratic enlargement, the expansion of democracy and free markets, was embraced by which president? Bill Clinton pursued a foreign policy that included democratic enlargement. Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan Bill Clinton George W. Bush

28 Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making18.3 Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making The basics of American foreign policy are laid out in the Constitution. The executive branch is the most powerful when it comes to foreign policy. Congress also plays an important role, but the Judiciary generally does not. In this section, we will explore how American foreign policy is made. The Constitution The Executive Branch Congress The Judiciary Interest Groups

29 The Constitution 18.3 Constitutional ConventionThe framers of the Constitution granted power to make foreign policy to the national government, not the states. They further divided authority for foreign policy between the president and Congress. The president is commander in chief of the military, but Congress funds the military and formally declares war. The president appoints ambassadors and other key foreign policy officials, while the Senate confirms those appointments. Constitutional Convention Foreign policy powers granted to the national government, not the states Foreign policy powers divided between the president and Congress President is commander in chief Congress funds military and declares war President appoints ambassadors, subject to Senate approval

30 The Executive Branch 18.3 The PresidentPreeminent in foreign and defense policy Relies on National Security Council The Departments of State, Defense and Homeland Security State formulates foreign policy Defense formulates military policy Homeland straddles both policies The intelligence community Agencies involved in the collection and analysis of information The executive branch determines foreign and defense policy. The president relies on the expertise of the National Security Council and his cabinet. The Department of State is generally in charge of formulating foreign policy. The Department of Defense formulates military policy, and the Department of Homeland Security straddles both policies. The intelligence community comprises all the agencies involved in the collection and analysis of information. The Central Intelligence Agency had been the head of the intelligence community until the Director of National Intelligence was created after the 9/11 attacks. The DNI is aided in its efforts by the FBI, The Department of Homeland Security, and the National Security Agency.

31 18.3 Who are the President's Foreign and Defense Policy Advisors?The secretaries of state and defense, along with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the intelligence community, are among the most important advisers to the president. Here, President Obama announces his national security team, including Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, Vice President Joe Biden, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, National Security Advisor General James Jones, and Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice. Pablo Martinez Monsivais/AP Images

32 Congress 18.3 Oversight Treaties and Executive Agreements AppointmentsHearings to monitor agency actions "Fact-finding" missions abroad Treaties and Executive Agreements Treaties require Senate approval, executive agreements do not. Appointments Senate's responsibility to provide advice, consent on appointing those involved in foreign and defense policy Congress does not have as much influence over foreign policy as the president does. It can hold hearings to monitor agency actions and conduct "fact-finding" missions abroad. Treaties require Senate approval, and it is rare that the Senate does not approve them. Presidents have used executive agreements when they want to avoid getting the Senate's approval. These executive agreements usually deal with routine foreign matters, but they have also involved major military commitments. The Senate does approve key presidential foreign policy appointments, however, and it also controls financing, so it could, in theory, cut funding for a military operation. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution to place restraints on the executive branch in conducting military interventions in foreign countries. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of most troop overseas deployment. Most presidents have ignored the resolution, but its constitutionality has not been tested in the courts.

33 Congress 18.3 Appropriations The War Powers ResolutionCan cut funding for military action The War Powers Resolution President reports to Congress within 48 hours Congress does not have as much influence over foreign policy as the president does. It can hold hearings to monitor agency actions and conduct "fact-finding" missions abroad. Treaties require Senate approval, and it is rare that the Senate does not approve them. Presidents have used executive agreements when they want to avoid getting the Senate's approval. These executive agreements usually deal with routine foreign matters, but they have also involved major military commitments. The Senate does approve key presidential foreign policy appointments, however, and it also controls financing, so it could, in theory, cut funding for a military operation. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution to place restraints on the executive branch in conducting military interventions in foreign countries. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of most troop overseas deployment. Most presidents have ignored the resolution, but its constitutionality has not been tested in the courts.

34 18.3 How Does Congress Exercise Foreign Affairs Oversight?One of the roles of Congress is to oversee U.S. foreign policy. This includes not only Congressional hearings and legislation, but also fact finding trips overseas and meetings with foreign leaders. Here, former Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi meets with Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki of Iraq. Anonymous/AP Images

35 18.3 FIGURE 18.1 How Has Defense Spending Changed Over Time?Defense spending was at its highest absolute levels during World War II. Today, as a result of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, it continues to stand at relatively high levels, about $644 billion constant dollars in 2010. Source: Mackenzie Eaglen, "U.S. Defense Spending: The Mismatch Between Plans and Resources," The Heritage Foundation (June 7, 2010):

36 The Judiciary 18.3 Limited Role Civil War World War II Guantanamo BayTends to dismiss disputes over foreign policy as political in nature Civil War Allowed Lincoln to deploy troops without Congressional declaration World War II Upheld Japanese internment Guantanamo Bay Mixed rulings The Judiciary's role in foreign and defense policy is fairly limited. The Court tends to dismiss disputes over foreign policy as political in nature, and it tends to be deferential to the president in times of war or threats to security. For example, during the Civil War, the Supreme Court allowed Lincoln to deploy troops without a Congressional declaration of war. And in World War II the Court upheld the internment of Japanese Americans for security reasons. But in the case of Guantanamo Bay, the off- shore detainment center in Cuba, rulings have been mixed, with some suggesting detainees cannot be kept indefinitely while other rulings have said they can.

37 Interest Groups 18.3 Business Groups Ethnic interest groupsDefense industries Military–industrial complex Ethnic interest groups American-Israel Public Affairs Committee Cuban-American National Foundation The federal government isn't the only party involved in foreign policy. Interest groups are also very active. We can break down the foreign policy interest groups into four categories. Business groups, especially those connected to the defense industry, are active in foreign policy. Ethnic interest groups, such as the American-Israel Public Affairs Committee and the Cuban-American National Foundation, work to influence foreign policy. The third group includes foreign governments and companies, which work to acquire foreign aid and prevent hostile legislation. Finally, there are ideological public interest groups, such as think tanks and nongovernmental organizations. Examples include the think tanks Brookings Institution and Heritage Foundation, as well as nongovernment organizations Amnesty International and Greenpeace.

38 Interest Groups 18.3 Foreign governments and companiesAcquiring foreign aid, preventing hostile bills Ideological–public interest groups Think tanks, nongovernmental organizations Brookings Institution, Heritage Foundation Amnesty International, Greenpeace The federal government isn't the only party involved in foreign policy. Interest groups are also very active. We can break down the foreign policy interest groups into four categories. Business groups, especially those connected to the defense industry, are active in foreign policy. Ethnic interest groups, such as the American-Israel Public Affairs Committee and the Cuban-American National Foundation, work to influence foreign policy. The third group includes foreign governments and companies, which work to acquire foreign aid and prevent hostile legislation. Finally, there are ideological public interest groups, such as think tanks and nongovernmental organizations. Examples include the think tanks Brookings Institution and Heritage Foundation, as well as nongovernment organizations Amnesty International and Greenpeace.

39 18.3 18.3 To get around Senate approval, presidents sometime turn to this foreign policy tool What foreign policy tools are at the president's disposal? Please answer the following question. Appointments Executive agreements Treaties Appropriations None of the above

40 18.3 18.3 To get around Senate approval, presidents sometime turn to this foreign policy tool Unlike appointments and treaties, executive agreements do no require Senate approval. Appointments Executive agreements Treaties Appropriations None of the above

41 Contemporary Challenges in Foreign and Defense Policy18.4 Contemporary Challenges in Foreign and Defense Policy We continue to face significant foreign and defense policy challenges. Three of the most important are trade, terrorism, and nuclear weapons. We'll take an in-depth look at those three in this section. Trade Terrorism Nuclear Weapons

42 Trade 18.4 Making Trade Policy The Case of ChinaBilateral, regional and global free trade models The Case of China Bilateral trade relationship has grown dramatically over past three decades 3 issues of concern Loss of American jobs Trade deficit Safety of Chinese imports When it comes to trade, countries tend to be protectionist, or engage in either strategic trade or free trade, although many countries mix some or all of these into their policies. Under protectionism, a country limits the import of foreign goods. Under strategic policy, governments target industries they want to see grow and support them using tax breaks or other benefits. Under free trade, there is limited government interference in trade. To make trade policy, countries may follow one of three models. Bilateral trade agreements are between two countries. Regional trade agreements involve more than two countries but can be as few as three. The North American Free Trade Agreement, or NAFTA, is an example. Finally, there are global free trade agreements, such as the World Trade Organization. In its bilateral trade relationship with the U.S., China has grown dramatically over the last three decades, but there are three issues of concern: the loss of American jobs, the trade deficit, and the safety of Chinese imports.

43 18.4 FIGURE 18.2 Who are the United States' major trading partners?The United States exports more goods to Canada than any other country. China, Mexico, and Japan also account for large shares of U.S. exports. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Statistics.

44 Terrorism 18.4 Making counterterrorism policy The case of al-QaedaDiplomacy Military power Economic power Covert action The case of al-Qaeda Militant Islamic terrorist group founded in Pakistan in late 1980s Headed by Osama bin Laden at time of September 11, 2001 attacks Now more decentralized Terrorism can be defined as violence designed to achieve political intimidation and instil fear. Countries like the U.S. have four key tools in crafting counterterrorism policy. It can use diplomacy, military power, economic power, such as sanctions, and covert actions. Al-Qaeda is a militant Islamic terrorist group founded in Pakistan in the late 1980s. Its initial purpose was to conduct a Jihad, or holy war, in the name of the Islamic religion, particularly against the Soviet Union, which had invaded and attempted to occupy the Muslim nation of Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda and its leader, Osama bin Laden, later vehemently objected to the intrusion of U.S. troops in the Muslim holy land of Saudi Arabia. From a base in Afghanistan, al-Qaeda under the direction of bin Laden launched a series of attacks against U.S. interests. These attacks first focused on U.S. military and diplomatic targets in the Middle East and Africa, and then culminated in the devastating attacks on New York and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001. Current terrorism is based on extremist Islamic groups. The U.S. has been the target of this religious wave of terrorism, designed to drive the U.S. out of the Middle East.

45 Nuclear Weapons 18.4 Making arms proliferation policyCountries pursue nuclear power to provide for their defense without having to rely on other countries. They may seek the international influence that comes with possession of nuclear power, and they may bend to domestic pressures to gain the weapons. In response, countries like the U.S. have developed arms proliferation policies. These tend to take one of three forms. Disarmament sees the weapons themselves as a source of conflict and thus seeks to get rid of them entirely. Arms control accepts that there will be nuclear weapons but seeks to reduce the chances that they will be used by decreasing the number and type in existence. Denial seeks to prevent would-be nuclear powers from getting the technology they need to build a bomb. Finally, counterproliferation uses preemptive military action against a country or terrorist group. While there are almost no direct diplomatic talks between the U.S. and North Korea, there have been various talks to monitor North Korea's nuclear program. In 2010, the United States called for an end to North Korea's nuclear weapons and missile programs. Confrontation between the two nations appears likely in the foreseeable future. Making arms proliferation policy Disarmament, arms control, denial, and counterproliferation The case of North Korea Almost no direct diplomatic contacts between U.S. and North Korea Various talks have started, but failed

46 How Has the United States Handled Nuclear Proliferation in North Korea?18.4 Relations between the United States and North Korea have been tense since the Korean War. A military parade in 2012, shown here, showcases the country's missile technology. David Guttenfelder/AP Images

47 18.4 18.4 The idea that weapons are an inherent cause of conflict and should be abolished is: Let's see what you have learned about American foreign policy with respect to nuclear weapons. Disarmament Arms Control Denial Defense

48 18.4 18.4 The idea that weapons are an inherent cause of conflict and should be abolished is: Disarmament seeks to avoid conflict by getting rid of its source, in this case the weapons themselves. Disarmament Arms Control Denial Defense

49 Toward Reform: New Challenges in American Foreign Policy18.5 Toward Reform: New Challenges in American Foreign Policy As we just noted, trade, terrorism, and nuclear weapons will continue to challenge U.S. foreign and defense policy. But those aren't the only challenges. The economic growth of China and India, which, together with Brazil and Russia are collectively called BRIC, also poses challenges. China has the world's fastest growing economy, and its relationship with the U.S. is very complex. China appears to be the primary challenger to the U.S. but also its most logical partner. Both countries benefit from globalization, both want to limit nuclear power, and both want to rein in countries like Iran and North Korea. But there is also a lot of mistrust between the two. India's relationship with the U.S. is clearer and is seen as a counterweight to China. But there are troubles in Europe. Some countries such as Greece and Spain are struggling to pay their debts, which puts a strain on the European Central Bank, which lends money to these countries. And complicating all of this is American public opinion. Americans are less interested in foreign policy, and it can be quite difficult to get them to agree on any particular issue. Trade, terrorism, and nuclear weapons Economic growth and influence of China, India, Brazil and Russia European debt troubles American public opinion

50 18.5 What Are the BRIC Countries? Sergei Karpukhin/ReutersFormer Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, former Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, Chinese President Hu Jintao, and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh at the BRIC Summit in Brazil in The BRIC countries are among the fastest growing emerging economies in the world, with 40% of the world's population and more than 15% of the global economy. Sergei Karpukhin/Reuters

51 18.5 18.5 Relations with this country are challenging because it appears to be both primary challenger to the U.S. and logical partner. Please answer one final multiple-choice question on foreign policy and economic power. Brazil Russia India China

52 18.5 18.5 Relations with this country are challenging because it appears to be both primary challenger to the U.S. and logical partner. This statement holds true for China. China and the United States are competitors for global markets. The surge of Chinese imports has resulted in a loss of U.S. jobs, but China is also the United States' second largest trading partner. Brazil Russia India China

53 18 Discussion Questions What foreign policy challenges have emerged since the Cold War? What role does each branch of government play in foreign policy?

54 18 Further Review Listen to the ChapterStudy and Review the Flashcards Study and Review the Practice Tests