1 A C LOSER L OOK AT INCLUSO AND EXCEPTO Amy S. Orf Northern Michigan University AATSP 95 th Annual Conference July 11, 2013 [email protected]

2 Abstract : In presenting prepositional pronouns, many Spanish textbooks include incluso and excepto in a list of exceptions that are used with the subject pronouns yo and tú, instead of mí and ti. While it is true that incluso and excepto do not directly precede mí and ti, it is not true that they always require the subject pronouns yo and tú. I argue that pronoun use with incluso and excepto is more complicated than indicated in textbooks and that it actually varies according to the context of the sentence.

3 T EXTS THAT INDICATE THE USE OF SUBJECT PRONOUNS WITH INCLUSO incluso ( ¡Anda!; Así es ; Conversación y repaso; Fundamental Spanish; Imagina; Modern Spanish; A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish; Practice Makes Perfect: Complete Spanish Grammar; Practice Makes Perfect: Spanish Pronouns and Prepositions; Rumbos; Spanish: An Essential Grammar; Spanish: Pronouns & Prepositions; Spanish Grammar in Context ) hasta, in the sense of ‘even/including’ ( A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish; Spanish: An Essential Grammar; Spanish Grammar in Context )

4 T EXTS THAT INDICATE THE USE OF SUBJECT PRONOUNS WITH EXCEPTO excepto ( ¡A que sí!; ¡Anda!; Así es ; Conversación y repaso ; En comunidad ; En contacto ; Fundamental Spanish; Gramática para la composición; A Handbook of Contemporary Spanish Grammar; Imagina ; Modern Spanish ; A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish; Practice Makes Perfect: Complete Spanish Grammar; Practice Makes Perfect: Spanish Pronouns and Prepositions; ¡Recuerdos!; Rumbos; Spanish: An Essential Grammar; Spanish: Pronouns & Prepositions; Spanish Grammar in Context ) menos ( ¡A que sí!; ¡Anda!; Así es ; Conversación y repaso; Fundamental Spanish; Imagina; A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish; Practice Makes Perfect: Complete Spanish Grammar; Practice Makes Perfect: Spanish Pronouns and Prepositions; Rumbos; Spanish: An Essential Grammar; Spanish: Pronouns & Prepositions; Spanish Grammar in Context ) salvo ( ¡A que sí!; ¡Anda!; Así es ; Conversación y repaso; Fundamental Spanish; A Handbook of Contemporary Spanish Grammar; Imagina; A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish; Practice Makes Perfect: Complete Spanish Grammar; Practice Makes Perfect: Spanish Pronouns and Prepositions; Spanish: An Essential Grammar; Spanish: Pronouns & Prepositions; Rumbos; Spanish Grammar in Context )

5 E XAMPLES OF INCLUSO / HASTA WITH SUBJECT PRONOUNS “Todos beben agua, incluso yo.” http://www.studyspanish.com/lessons/oppro.htm http://www.studyspanish.com/lessons/oppro.htm “Todo el mundo fue, incluso Juan y yo.” (Bolinger, Ciruti, and Montero 382) “Todo el mundo ha sido invitado. “¿ Incluso yo ?” (Bolinger, Ciruti, and Montero 381) “¿Van todos incluso tú ?” (Bolinger, Ciruti, and Montero 382) “Muchas personas incluso/hasta yo creen en las hadas.” http://spanish.about.com/od/pronouns/a/prep_pronouns.htm http://spanish.about.com/od/pronouns/a/prep_pronouns.htm “ Hasta/incluso yo logré entenderlo.” (Kattán-Ibarra and Howkins 185) “ Hasta yo iría a verlo.” (Moliner, entry for hasta ) “ Hasta tú puedes hacer eso.” (Butt and Benjamin 135)

6 A CLOSER LOOK AT INCLUSO / HASTA Todos beben agua, incluso yo. → Yo bebo agua. Todo el mundo fue, incluso Juan y yo. → Juan y yo fuimos. Todo el mundo ha sido invitado. ¿ Incluso yo ? → ¿ Yo he sido invitado? ¿Van todos incluso tú ? → ¿ Tú vas?

7 A CLOSER LOOK AT INCLUSO / HASTA ( CONTINUED ) Muchas personas incluso/hasta yo creen en las hadas. → Yo creo en las hadas. Hasta/incluso yo logré entenderlo. → Yo logré entenderlo. Hasta yo iría a verlo. → Yo iría a verlo. Hasta tú puedes hacer eso. → Tú puedes hacer eso.

8 E XAMPLES OF EXCEPTO / MENOS / SALVO WITH SUBJECT PRONOUNS “Todos lo apoyan excepto yo.” (Nissenberg 243) “Todos fueron a la plaza de toros excepto yo.” (Gill, Wegmann, and Méndez-Faith 148) “Todos ayudan a cocinar, excepto tú.” (Levy-Konesky and Daggett 167) “Nadie me quiere, excepto tú.” (Bolinger, Ciruti, and Montero 381) “ Menos yo, todos mintieron.” (García-Serrano, Grant Cash, and de la Torre 33) “Todos están de acuerdo menos tú y yo.” (Blanco and Tocaimaza- Hatch 101) “…todo el mundo habla francés aquí menos (OR excepto OR salvo ) yo.” (Richmond 187) “Todos lo hicieron menos/excepto/salvo tú.” (Butt and Benjamin 135) “Vinieron todos, excepto/salvo/menos tú.” (Kattán-Ibarra and Howkins 185)

9 A CLOSER LOOK AT EXCEPTO / MENOS / SALVO Todos lo apoyan excepto yo. → Yo no lo apoyo. Todos fueron a la plaza de toros excepto yo. → Yo no fui a la plaza de toros. Todos ayudan a cocinar, excepto tú. → Tú no ayudas a cocinar. Nadie me quiere, excepto tú. → Tú me quieres. Menos yo, todos mintieron. → Yo no mentí.

10 A CLOSER LOOK AT EXCEPTO / MENOS / SALVO ( CONTINUED ) Todos están de acuerdo menos tú y yo. → Tú y yo no estamos de acuerdo. “…todo el mundo habla francés aquí menos (OR excepto OR salvo ) yo.” → Yo no hablo francés. Vinieron todos, excepto/salvo/menos tú. → Tú no viniste. Todos lo hicieron menos/excepto/salvo tú. → Tú no lo hiciste.

11 C ONTEXT Whitley and González (2007) specify that pronoun use with como, another preposition commonly said to require subject pronouns, depends on the context. They indicate that como is used with subject pronouns only “en una comparación de sujetos”(69). As we shall see, pronoun use with incluso and excepto depends on the context, as well. In all of the examples we have examined thus far, the pronouns yo and tú serve as the subjects of unexpressed, but implied, predicates.

12 E XAMPLES OF INCLUSO AND EXCEPTO WITH PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS Bolinger, Ciruti, and Montero (1966) give a different type of example: “Lo odian a todo, incluso a ti ” (381). They explain the use of the pronoun ti here, rather than tú : “The reason for the object form[…] is not that the ti is the object of incluso but that it is the object of the verb odian – They hate you ; it of course carries the personal a ” (383). In fact, if the subject pronoun tú were used in this example instead, it would change the meaning of the sentence: Lo odian a todo, incluso tú ‘They hate everything, even you do.’ Similarly, Moliner (2008) offers the following, “Se acordaron de todos, excepto de mí,” and explains that excepto “Se construye exactamente igual que menos, o sea respetando la partícula que le corresponde llevar por su papel en la oración al nombre a que se aplica” (entry for excepto, -a ). She gives an example with incluso, as well: “ Incluso para mí tiene secretos” (entry for incluso, -a ).

13 A CLOSER LOOK AT INCLUSO AND EXCEPTO Lo odian a todo, incluso a ti. → Te odian a ti. Se acordaron de todos, excepto de mí. → No se acordaron de mí. Incluso para mí tiene secretos. → Tiene secretos para mí.

14 S OME SENTENCES TO CONSIDER Todos tienen que hacerlo, incluso tú y yo. Pablo entiende a todos, incluso... ¿tú y yo? Ellos les dan dinero a todos, incluso... ¿tú y yo? Elena depende de todos, incluso... ¿tú y yo? Él se lleva bien con todos, incluso... ¿tú y yo? La opinión de todos es importante, incluso... ¿tú y yo?

15 Todos tienen que hacerlo, incluso tú y yo. (subject) → Tú y yo tenemos que hacerlo. (subject)

16 Pablo entiende a todos, incluso a ti y a mí. (direct object) → Pablo nos entiende a ti y a mí. (direct object)

17 Ellos les dan dinero a todos, incluso a ti y a mí. (indirect object) → Ellos nos dan dinero a ti y a mí. (indirect object)

18 Elena depende de todos, incluso de ti y de mí. (object of preposition) → Elena depende de ti y de mí. (object of preposition)

19 Él se lleva bien con todos, incluso contigo y conmigo. (object of preposition) → Él se lleva bien contigo y conmigo. (object of preposition)

20 La opinión de todos es importante, incluso la tuya y la mía. (possessive) → L a tuya y la mía son importantes. (possessive)

21 M ORE SENTENCES TO CONSIDER Todos tienen que hacerlo, excepto tú y yo. Pablo entiende a todos, excepto... ¿tú y yo? Ellos les dan dinero a todos, excepto... ¿tú y yo? Elena depende de todos, excepto... ¿tú y yo? Él se lleva bien con todos, excepto... ¿tú y yo? La opinión de todos es importante, excepto... ¿tú y yo?

22 Todos tienen que hacerlo, excepto tú y yo. (subject) → Ni tú ni yo tenemos que hacerlo. (subject)

23 Pablo entiende a todos, excepto a ti y a mí. (direct object) → Pablo no nos entiende ni a ti ni a mí. (direct object)

24 Ellos les dan dinero a todos, excepto a ti y a mí. (indirect object) → Ellos no nos dan dinero ni a ti ni a mí. (indirect object)

25 Elena depende de todos, excepto de ti y de mí. (object of preposition) → Elena no depende ni de ti ni de mí. (object of preposition)

26 Él se lleva bien con todos, excepto contigo y conmigo. (object of preposition) → Él no se lleva bien ni contigo ni conmigo. (object of preposition)

27 La opinión de todos es importante, excepto la tuya y la mía. (possessive) → Ni la tuya ni la mía es importante. (possessive)

28 A NOMALIES “ Incluso yo, hay tres estudiantes.” (Nuessel 185) → Hay… ¿ yo ? “Hay veinte personas aquí, incluso tú y yo.” (Richmond 187) → Hay… ¿ tú y yo ?

29 A CLOSER LOOK Incluso yo, hay tres estudiantes. → Yo soy estudiante. → Yo soy uno de los tres estudiantes. Hay veinte personas aquí, incluso tú y yo. → Tú y yo estamos aquí.

30 A RE THEY EVEN PREPOSITIONS ? Since incluso/hasta and excepto/menos/salvo behave so differently from other Spanish prepositions, should they be considered prepositions at all? García-Pelayo (1984) lists excepto and menos as prepositions, but incluso and hasta as adverbs, and salvo as “Adv./prep.” (619). For Moliner (2008) excepto and salvo are prepositions, but incluso, hasta, and menos are adverbs. Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) call incluso, excepto, and salvo “non-prepositional relaters” (207). Bolinger, Ciruti, and Montero (1966) call them “near- prepositional relator words” (383). Butt and Benjamin (2013) refer to all five as “prepositions or preposition- like words” (135).

31 O RIGINS The odd behavior of incluso/hasta and excepto/menos/salvo as compared to other Spanish prepositions, along with the variation in terminology, may have something to do with their respective origins. Incluso and excepto descend from the Latin participles inclusus and exceptus, which were inflected for gender, number, and case. Bolinger (1957) points out that they “[…] continued to be used up to the seventeenth century in agreement with the noun […]” (212). According to Bolinger, the modern usage is derived from absolute constructions, such as “hecho el trabajo, aprobadas las leyes, hallado el tesoro” (212-13). This may explain the continued use of subject pronouns in this context. Bolinger states that despite the loss of inflection, Spanish-speakers still associate incluso and excepto with absolute constructions, and so they “[…] have not come to be felt fully as prepositions […]” (212).

32 O RIGINS ( CONTINUED ) Salvo descends from the Latin adjective salvus ‘safe,’ which was also inflected for gender, number and case. Menos descends from the Latin adverb minus ‘less.’ Perhaps the modern usage of salvo and menos is derived from absolute constructions, as well. Hasta is a borrowing from Arabic, according to Moliner, “ hattá, con influencia del lat. ad ista ” (entry for hasta ). (Latin ad ista = ‘to those’ (neuter plural)) None of these is one of the many prepositions that have survived from Latin, such as a, de, en, entre, con, and sin. Rather, as Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) point out, they “[…] seem to be forms that have more recently assumed a relater function […]” (216), and as Lenz (1925) states, “[…] aún no han concluído su evolución […]” (32). It is no wonder that they behave differently when it comes to pronoun use.

33 C ONCLUSIONS Whatever you choose to call incluso/hasta and excepto/menos/salvo, it is clear that their use with pronouns differentiates them from other Spanish prepositions. However, pronoun use with these words is not as simple as indicated in most textbooks. They occur with the subject pronouns yo and tú only when referring to the subject of the sentence. In other contexts, the addition of a preposition such as a, de, en, con requires the use of the prepositional pronouns mí and ti (or – migo and – tigo). The context may even necessitate the use of the possessive pronouns el mío and el tuyo.

34 Q UESTIONS OR COMMENTS ?