1 Chapter 4 Water in the AtmosphereSummer II 2017

2 Chapter 4 Water in the AtmosphereWater Vapor Cloud Formation Nucleating Processes Stability and Clouds Cloud Types Precipitation Growth

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6 Overview Moist air is air that contains water vaporWater vapor – one of the variable gases in atmos. Varies in space and time Greenhouse gas (impacts temperature) Highest concentration in lower atmosphere (lower troposphere) Needed for clouds to form How do we get water vapor? Slide2.mp3 Moisture in the atmosphere refers to the water vapor content of the air. So moist air is air that contains some measure of water vapor. Water vapor is one of the invisible gases found in the atmosphere and is highly variable in both space and time. The highest concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere is found near the earth’s surface. This is because water vapor gets into the atmosphere primarily through evaporation from bodies of water such as oceans and lakes and to a certain degree through transpiration by plants.

7 Three States of Matter Solid (ice), Liquid, Gas (water vapor)

8 Fig. 2-5, p. 40

9 Evaporation EvaporationLatent heat is absorbed from environment (cooling process) Think of how sweat and misters are cooling Condensation: warming process, latent heat is released into the environment

10 What happens once there is water vapor?How do we account for the water vapor content in the atmosphere? What is saturation and how does the air reach saturation? What happens once air is saturated? How do clouds form? Slide4.mp3 In this lesson you will learn how we account for the water vapor content of the air. We will also discuss a very important concept called saturation. And you will discover how humidity, which refers to the water vapor content of the air, is actually measured. The discussion of water vapor and saturation will help you understand how clouds form in the atmosphere.

11 Saturation Photo from www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/ ~csk/water.htmlSlide8.mp3 Something that is very important in our discussion of atmospheric moisture and cloud formation is the concept of saturation. What do we mean by saturation? Consider a glass that is partially filled with water. Imagine that a cover is placed over the top of this glass. There will be some water vapor molecules in the air space between the surface of the water and the top of the container. Let’s take a microscopic view of the surface of the water and see what’s happening to the water molecules.

12 Saturation: When the rate of evaporation = rate of condensation Depends on temperature Fig. 4-1, p. 99

13 More on Evaporation

14 Indices of Water Vapor ContentHumidity – general term for the amount of water vapor in the air Humidity is commonly expressed by: Mixing Ratio Vapor Pressure Relative Humidity- we hear this one a lot Dew Point Temperature Slide12.mp3 Since water vapor is such an important component of the atmosphere in meteorological processes, we need to define some indices to account for the water vapor content of the air. Humidity is a general term used to refer to the amount of water vapor in the air. Specifically, humidity is expressed using the following terms: vapor pressure, mixing ratio, relative humidity and dew point temperature. There are other terms such as absolute humidity and specific humidity, but we will only consider these four.

15 Mixing Ratio Just like a recipe: ratio of weight of water vapor to weight of all atmospheric molecules Typical value ~ 10 g water vapor / 1 kg dry air Does not depend on temperature or pressure Slide18.mp3 A more commonly used expression for humidity is the relative humidity. Relative humidity is a ratio of the actual water vapor content to the maximum water vapor content possible at a given temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. The maximum water vapor content possible refers to how much water vapor would be required for saturation. So we can express relative humidity as a ratio of the actual vapor pressure to the saturation vapor pressure. Fig. 4-2, p. 101

16 Vapor Pressure Just like regular atmospheric pressure, but in this case, the pressure exerted SOLELY by water vapor molecules. Expressed in millibars (mb) Typically < 40 mb Saturation vapor pressure – the pressure exerted by water vapor molecules at saturation Saturation vapor pressure increases as temperature increases “Warm air holds more water vapor” – sort of. Slide18.mp3 A more commonly used expression for humidity is the relative humidity. Relative humidity is a ratio of the actual water vapor content to the maximum water vapor content possible at a given temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. The maximum water vapor content possible refers to how much water vapor would be required for saturation. So we can express relative humidity as a ratio of the actual vapor pressure to the saturation vapor pressure.

17 Relative Humidity Ratio of actual water vapor content to the maximum water vapor content possible (at saturation). Expressed as a percentage RH = 100% x (VAPOR PRESSURE/SATURATION VAPOR PRESSURE) NOT a sole measure of atmospheric moisture (therefore, can be very misleading) Slide18.mp3 A more commonly used expression for humidity is the relative humidity. Relative humidity is a ratio of the actual water vapor content to the maximum water vapor content possible at a given temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. The maximum water vapor content possible refers to how much water vapor would be required for saturation. So we can express relative humidity as a ratio of the actual vapor pressure to the saturation vapor pressure.

18 Relative Humidity Fig. 4-3, p. 102

19 Relative Humidity Depends on 2 variables:1. actual water vapor present 2. temperature* *Max water vapor content possible depends on temperature Slide19.mp3 Relative humidity depends on two variables: the actual water vapor content and the temperature (since saturation vapor pressure is a function of temperature). Thus, relative humidity can change if there is an increase or decrease in the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere or if there is a change in temperature. Since relative humidity depends on two variables, it is not an indicator of the actual water vapor content.

20 Ways to Achieve Saturation (RH=100%)Add water vapor Evaporation Example: Bathroom shower (foggy!), Rain falling into dry air Slide4.mp3 There are three processes than can ultimately lead to saturation. One is to add water vapor to the air. As discussed earlier, the process of adding water vapor to the air is called evaporation. Plants can also add water vapor to the air. If enough water vapor is added, the air becomes saturated. This can happen when rain falls into air that is very cold.

21 Ways to Achieve Saturation (RH=100%)Cool the air (reduces sat. vapor pressure) Examples: Condensation on outside of cold glass Air conditioners Slide5.mp3 A second method is to mix cold air with warm, moist air. If you have ever breathed outdoors on a very cold day, you saw a tiny cloud being produced in your exhaled air. The moist air you exhale mixes with the cold outside air resulting in saturated conditions. The third method for achieving saturation is cooling the air. This is the predominant method in the atmosphere leading to cloud formation and so is the one we shall investigate more thoroughly.

22 Relative Humidity vs. TempWith NO change in water vapor content, RH increases as temperature decreases RH decreases as temperature increases Slide21.mp3 Remember saturation vapor pressure changes with temperature. So relative humidity will change inversely as temperature changes even though the actual water vapor content may stay the same. Relative humidity will increase as temperature decreases and it will decrease as temperature increases.

23 Relative Humidity vs. TempSlide22.mp3 In this graph the red curve shows how relative humidity typically changes from early morning to late at night. The blue curve shows how temperature changes. It is common to observe the highest relative humidity around sunrise when the lowest temperature for the day often occurs and the lowest relative humidity in the afternoon when the highest temperature typically occurs. Fig. 4-4, p. 105

24 Use of Relative HumidityRelative humidity is inversely related to the rate of evaporation Saturated air = 100% RH Heat Index – a measure of “apparent temperature” (how hot you feel) based on combined effects of temperature and RH Slide22.mp3 Relative humidity is inversely related to the rate of evaporation. The lower the relative humidity the higher is the rate of evaporation. On a hot, summer day in locations where the relative humidity is high you feel uncomfortable outside because the rate of evaporation of perspiration from your skin, which helps to cool the body, is low. The Heat Index, a number computed from the ambient temperature and relative humidity, is often used to indicate an apparent temperature.

25 Box 4-1, p. 103

26 Dewpoint Temperature Temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation (at constant pressure) Like vapor pressure and mixing ratio, dewpoint temperature is an indicator of the actual water vapor content Higher dew point = more water vapor (saturation: Td = Ta) Slide24.mp3 Another commonly used term to refer to humidity is the dew point temperature or just dew point. The dew point is the temperature to which the air must be cooled at constant pressure and water vapor content to reach saturation. Unlike relative humidity, dew point is a good indicator of the actual water vapor content.

27 Fig. 4-5, p. 106

28 Dew Photo from lynmillett.com/archives/2003

29 Frost Photo from www.ashland-city.k12.oh.us/ahs/classes/hort

30 Temp-Dew Point Spread

31 Example

32 Example

33 Example (cont’d)

34 Example (cont’d)

35 If only forming raindrops were as simple as saturating the air…

36 Overview Clouds composed of tiny liquid water drops and/or ice crystals Diameter of average cloud droplet = inches which is about 100 times smaller than an average raindrop Slide4.mp3 Clouds are composed of tiny liquid water droplets and/or ice crystals. The diameter of an average cloud droplet is inches. This is about 100 times smaller than an average raindrop. The tiny cloud droplets or ice crystals that make up clouds are too small to overcome the updraft and fall as precipitation.

37 How do droplets form? 1) Homogeneous NucleationWater vapor molecules simply bond together Even moderate molecular kinetic energy will break bonds, so must have very cold temperatures (< -40 deg C) -40 deg C not generally seen in most of the troposphere. MUST BE ANOTHER WAY!

38 How do droplets form? 2) Heterogeneous NucleationWater molecules bond to non-water particles (e.g., aerosols) in the atmosphere called condensation nuclei. Why is nucleation easier? For hygroscopic nuclei (where water dissolves agent), due to SOLUTE effect For hydrophobic nuclei (where water does not dissolve agent), due to CURVATURE effect

39 SOLUTE EFFECT Nucleus attracts water molecules, keeping them from evaporating. Therefore, saturation vapor pressure decreases. Read another way, less water vapor is required to make droplet grow! X X N

40 CURVATURE EFFECT With fewer neighbors, less attraction amongst water molecules (surface tension). Therefore, molecules more readily evaporate into air. To keep saturation, must increase rate of condensation (saturation vapor pressure must be increased) Read another way, increasing the size of a raindrop (less curvature), allows for droplet growth (due to lower saturation vapor pressure). Hydrophobic condensation nuclei increase size of raindrop (water wets outside of aerosol) 2nd Edition: Fig. 4-7, p. 93

41 Examples of Condensation NucleiClay Salt Silver iodide Pollution Bacteria

42 How Do Ice Crystals Form?Deposition onto ice nuclei Spontaneous freezing (no ice nuclei) (need VERY cold temps – much below 0 deg C) What happens if insufficient ice nuclei are present (very common)? Water exists below 0 deg C, but is not frozen. Called supercooled water. Slide14.mp3 Ice crystals can form either by deposition onto an ice nuclei, or when a supercooled water drop comes in contact with an ice nuclei and freezes, or by spontaneous freezing in which no ice nuclei are required. The third process occurs at temperatures near -40 deg Celsius or colder.

43 Let’s start at the surfaceFog is a cloud whose base is at the ground How is saturation achieved? Just like anywhere else: Increasing water vapor Decreasing temperature (think of ways we can do either of these at the surface of Earth) Slide25.mp3 We have seen that the predominant mechanism for cloud formation in the atmosphere is adiabatic cooling due to air being forced to rise. In certain situations, diabatic cooling can lead to saturation and cloud formation. Diabatic cooling operates in the formation of certain types of fog. Fog is simply a cloud whose base is at the ground. There are two types of fog that form from diabatic cooling. These are radiation fog and advection fog.

44 Fig. 4-9, p. 110

45 Radiation Fog Clear skies/light wind Ground cools by radiationAir in contact with ground cools by conduction. Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130 Slide26.mp3 Radiation fog forms at night when the sky is clear, the wind is light and a shallow layer of moist air is in contact with the ground. The ground cools at night due to loss of energy through radiation. The shallow moist layer of air in contact with the ground cools by the energy transfer process called conduction. If the air cools sufficiently, saturation occurs and fog forms.

46 Valley Fog Fig. 4-10, p. 111

47 Advection Fog Warm, moist air moves over a colder surface.Heat transferred from the air to surface, thus air cools Figure from ATOC5600 Slide27.mp3 Advection fog forms when warm, moist air moves over a colder surface. The surface may be land that has been cooled by radiation, or it may be water that is colder than the air moving over it. In either case, the air cools by conduction. If enough cooling takes place, the air can become saturated and a fog develops.

48 Advection Fog Due to warm Pacific air advected over cold coastal waters Fig. 4-11, p. 111

49 Upslope Fog Moist air carried upslope by the wind.Air cools by adiabatic expansion Called orographic lift Figure from ATOC5600 Slide28.mp3 Another type of fog is upslope fog. Upslope fog can form when moist air is forced to rise as air flows toward higher and higher terrain. Air flowing toward a mountain barrier is forced to rise. As the air rises it cools adiabatically. If sufficient cooling occurs the air becomes saturated and a cloud forms. Someone on the side of the mountain within the cloud would observe it as fog.

50 Evaporation Fog Evaporation occurs (adding water vapor)Cold air over warmer water Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130 Slide29.mp3 The fourth type of fog is evaporation fog, sometimes called steam fog. This type of fog forms when water evaporates into and mixes with colder, drier air. Colder air flowing over warmer water can cause steam fog. In the diagram above, note the water temperature is greater than the air’s temperature. The shallow layer of air at the water’s surface is warmed and gains moisture through evaporation. If enough mixing occurs, the air becomes saturated.

51 Evaporation Fog Slide30.mp3This photograph shows steam fog appearing to rise above the water surface. You may also have seen steam fog over an asphalt road surface that has become wet from rain. Once the clouds dissipate, the sun heats the asphalt causing the water to evaporate into and mix with the cooler air above the asphalt surface.

52 Precipitation Fog Precipitation fog Warm rain falls into colder airEvaporation and mixing occur Figure from ATOC5600 Slide31.mp3 Evaporation fog can also form when warm rain falls into a layer of colder air. The raindrops evaporate and if enough mixing occurs fog forms. This type of evaporation fog is known as precipitation fog and is sometimes observed to the north of a warm front.

53 Hail Fog Hail begins to evaporate into the air aboveSlide31.mp3 Evaporation fog can also form when warm rain falls into a layer of colder air. The raindrops evaporate and if enough mixing occurs fog forms. This type of evaporation fog is known as precipitation fog and is sometimes observed to the north of a warm front. Hail begins to evaporate into the air above Lots of moisture content available with hail Saturates the air above the ground  Fog

54 Finally looking at water vapor possibilities as air moves upwards from the surface…

55 Dry Adiabatic Lapse RateRecall: Lapse rate is a decrease of temperature with height The rate of cooling of dry (unsaturated) air as it rises is a constant: ~10 oC / km Don’t confuse with the environmental lapse rate (radiosonde observation), we’re talking about our parcel (blob) of air Slide11.mp3 Since we are talking about cooling the air leading to saturation, let’s return to the process of adiabatic cooling. A lapse rate is a decrease of temperature with height. When a parcel of air rises in the atmosphere it expands and cools. In other words its temperature decreases with height. As long as the parcel is not saturated, its temperature cools at a constant rate known as the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate. Its value is 1 deg C per 100 meters or about 5.5 deg F per 1000 feet. Note that the term “dry” refers to the parcel being unsaturated, not the absence of water vapor.

56 What have we learned so far?A parcel of air cools adiabatically as it rises. Is the water vapor content changing? Is the temperature changing? Is the RH increasing or decreasing? Slide13.mp3 What have we learned so far? If a parcel of air rises in the atmosphere it will cool adiabatically. As long as the air is not saturated, meaning the relative humidity is less than 100%, the parcel will cool at the dry adiabatic lapse rate As an unsaturated parcel of air rises does the water vapor content change? The water vapor content, and hence the mixing ratio, remains constant. How is the temperature in the parcel changing and what effect does that have on relative humidity?

57 What have we learned so far?Temperature decreases Relative Humidity increases What happens when RH = 100%? The air is saturated. Once the air is saturated, condensation (or deposition) occurs and a cloud begins to form. This is “Cloud Base” AKA the Lifted Condensation Level (LCL) Slide14.mp3 The temperature drops which causes the relative humidity of the parcel to increase. What happens when the relative humidity reaches 100%?

58 Cloud Development Photo from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130Temp and dew point in rising saturated air are the same Water vapor condenses into liquid water Slide23.mp3 As long as the saturated parcel continues to rise, the cloud will develop vertically. The temperature and dew point of the parcel remain equal, otherwise you wouldn’t have saturated conditions. The dew point drops at a greater rate than in unsaturated air because not only is dew point changing with pressure, but the water vapor content in the parcel is decreasing since water vapor is condensing into liquid water drops

59 Cloud Development Photo from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130These clouds are composed of tiny liquid water drops Slide24.mp3 A cloud, therefore, is composed of tiny liquid water drops that form when water vapor condenses onto condensation nuclei once the air becomes saturated. In actuality, condensation may begin even before the relative humidity reaches 100% due to the hygroscopic nature of condensation nuclei. At very cold temperatures deposition may occur and a cloud composed of ice crystals forms. We’ll discuss the various types of clouds later.

60 LCL Lifting Condensation LevelThe height at which a rising parcel of air becomes saturated due to adiabatic cooling. Where a cloud begins to form in rising air Slide20.mp3 Once the parcel becomes saturated, condensation occurs on condensation nuclei and a cloud begins to form. The level at which the parcel becomes saturated is called the Lifting Condensation Level abbreviated LCL. It is the level at which condensation begins due to lifting a parcel of air. The base of a cloud is at this level.

61 What Happens Above the LCL?The air still expands and cools as it rises The cooling rate is slowed due to release of latent heat of condensation The cooling rate is called the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate ~6 oC / km (approx.) Slide21.mp3 What happens if the saturated parcel of air continues to rise above the LCL? The parcel still expands and cools, but the cooling rate is no longer according to the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The reason is once condensation occurs, energy is released to the parcel which slows the cooling rate. This release of energy is called the latent heat of condensation. Remember condensation is a warming process.

62 Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate-10 deg C/km DRY ADIABATIC L.R. +4 deg C/km due to latent heat release. + _________________________________ -6 deg C/km is the MOIST ADIABATIC L.R. Air is unsaturated – cools at Dry Adiabatic LR Air is saturated – cools at Moist Adiabatic LR Slide23.mp3 Take a look at this example. In the column labeled ENVIRON are temperatures obtained from a radiosonde observation. They are just the air temperatures at the given altitudes. This column represents the environmental lapse rate. Now we are going to see what would happen if a parcel of air at the surface with a temperature of 70 deg were forced to rise in the atmosphere. We’ll assume the parcel is not saturated.

63 Determining StabilityCompare environmental & parcel temp HEIGHT ENVIRON PARCEL (T/Td) 3 km AGL deg C ? 2 km AGL deg C ? 1 km AGL deg C ? SFC deg C /20 In reality, Td (dewpoint temperature) of parcel will decrease slowly as it is lifted. For our calculations in this course, we will assume the dewpoint remains constant. Where is LCL? How is stability affected by saturation point? 9/9 14/14 20/20 Slide23.mp3 Take a look at this example. In the column labeled ENVIRON are temperatures obtained from a radiosonde observation. They are just the air temperatures at the given altitudes. This column represents the environmental lapse rate. Now we are going to see what would happen if a parcel of air at the surface with a temperature of 70 deg were forced to rise in the atmosphere. We’ll assume the parcel is not saturated.

64 Four Types of StabilityAbsolutely Stable Stable for saturated and unsaturated ascent Absolutely Unstable Unstable for saturated and unsaturated ascent Neutral Stability Neither stable or unstable, no net acceleration Conditionally Unstable Stable for unsaturated parcel, unstable for saturated parcel Slide26.mp3 Using this method of determining the stability of a parcel of air, we can define four types of stability that might characterize any given layer in the atmosphere. A layer just means a certain vertical depth. For example, the layer could be from the surface to 10,000 feet or from the surface to 30,000 feet. These 4 types of stability are: absolutely unstable, absolutely stable, neutrally stable and conditionally unstable.

65 Fig. 4-15, p. 115

66 Level of Free ConvectionThe altitude in a conditionally unstable atmosphere above which a parcel becomes warmer than the environment. Above the LFC the parcel acquires a positive buoyant force Slide42.mp3 The Level of Free Convection is the altitude above which a parcel becomes warmer than the environment in a conditionally unstable atmosphere. Above the LFC the parcel acquires a positive buoyant force and the parcel accelerates upward.

67 Conditionally Unstable LayerHEIGHT ENVIRON PARCEL (T/Td) 3 km AGL deg C 2 km AGL deg C LFC 1 km AGL deg C /20 - LCL SFC deg C /20 Slide30.mp3 This table illustrates an absolutely stable layer. Note that at each level, the parcel temperature is colder than the environmental temperature regardless of whether the parcel is saturated or not. The parcel at each level is stable meaning there will be a resistance to vertical displacement. No where in this layer does the parcel become unstable. How do we overcome negative buoyancy? FORCED LIFT!

68 Cloud production due to liftFig. 4-13, p. 113

69 How Stability Changes Change the Environmental Lapse RateFor a given atmospheric layer: → Cooling (warming) the lower (upper) part will stabilize the layer. → Warming (cooling) the lower (upper) part will destabilize the layer. Slide25.mp3 How does stability change? Recall that stability is determined by comparing the environmental lapse rate to either the dry or moist adiabatic lapse rate, depending on whether the air parcels are saturated or not. If the environmental lapse rate changes then the stability changes. For a given layer in the atmosphere, cooling the lower part of the layer and warming the upper part of the layer will make that layer more stable. On the other hand, warming the lower part of the layer and cooling the upper part will make the layer more unstable.

70 What Processes Cause This?Insolation during the day Radiational cooling at night Temperature advection at different levels Slide28.mp3 Warmer or colder air being brought in by the winds at different levels (known as warm or cold advection) can cause a change to the environmental lapse rate and thus will change the stability.

71 All for Today…

72 Ch 4 Water vapor supplied by evaporation/transpiration (cooling)Saturation: rate of evaporation = rate of condensation Know how humidity is measured and how saturation could be expressed in each Mixing ratio: g of water vapor / kg of air (pure measure) Vapor pressure: pressure of only water vapor (pure measure) Relative humidity: ratio of vapor pressure to saturation vapor pressure (depends on temperature and moisture content, ex: decreased temperature = increased RH) Dew point: the temperature at which cooled air would reach saturation (depends on pressure but not temperature) Dew: condensation caused on a surface when saturation is reached Frost: deposition on a surface when saturation is reached below freezing Higher dew point = higher water content Lower spread between dew point and temperature = higher RH

73 Ch 4 Homogeneous nucleation: condensation of water directly in the air, cold temperatures, not common Heterogeneous nucleation: condensation with other particles (CCN) Solute effect: reduce evaporation from drops, faster droplet formation Curvature effect: increases starting curvature Ice formation Spontaneous freezing, also not common Deposition onto ice nuclei Fog: formation of cloud droplets at the surface from increased moisture or decreased temperature Radiation cooling – cooling to dew point due to loss of radiation Advection – warm moist air cooled by a cold surface Upslope – from cooling air pushed up in elevation Steam – from warm water with cool air above it Precipitation – from warm precip into cold air

74 Ch 4 LCL (lifted condensation level): height where a parcel becomes saturated, cloud base Saturated lapse rate (6 K / km): decreased lapse rate due to the condensation of water vapor and release of latent heat Conditionally unstable: stable for unsaturated ascent, unstable for saturated ascent LFC (level of free convection): height where a parcel become unstable

75 Chapter 4 Water in the AtmosphereTuesday July 18th

76 Chapter 4 Water in the AtmosphereWater Vapor Cloud Formation Nucleating Processes Stability and Clouds Cloud Types Precipitation Growth Yesterday

77 Four Cloud Groups Two considerations 1) Altitude: 2) Stability:High clouds (Cirrus, Cirro_____) Middle clouds (Alto_____) Low clouds (Stratus, Strato____) 2) Stability: Stable – layered clouds (____stratus) Unstable – convective clouds (_____cumulus) Clouds with extensive vertical development (inherently convective) are termed either cumulus or cumulonimbus, depending on whether an anvil cloud exists. Fig. 4-16, p. 116 Slide4.mp3 Clouds can be classified into four groups based on the height of the cloud base. These four groups are high clouds, middle clouds, low clouds and clouds with extensive vertical development. Table 4-3, p. 103

78 Cirrus Clouds Slide6.mp3 This is an example of cirrus clouds. Note the thin, wispy nature to their appearance. The long streamers are sometimes called “mares’ tales”.

79 Stratus Clouds Slide12.mp3 Stratus clouds have the appearance of a solid layer covering most if not all of the sky. They often have a grayish color. They usually form when a layer of stable air is lifted. Since the air is stable, the vertical motion is very weak.

80 Stratocumulus Slide13.mp3 Stratocumulus clouds are not a solid sheet of clouds like stratus, but rather are broken up somewhat into individual cloud elements. Blue sky or higher clouds can be seen in the breaks. They have a little more vertical development than stratus because the atmosphere in which these clouds form is slightly more unstable.

81 Cumulus Slide16.mp3 These puffy clouds are sometimes called fair weather cumulus. They are often seen on a summer afternoon as warm, buoyant air rises. They obviously do not show much vertical development because the air above the top of the clouds is more stable preventing the clouds from continuing to grow upward. If the atmosphere is conditionally unstable and parcels reach the LFC, continued vertical growth occurs.

82 Cumulus Congestus Slide17.mp3These are cumulus congestus clouds otherwise known as towering cumulus.

83 Anvil Cloud Cirrus clouds at the top of cumulonimbus clouds (i.e., thunderstorms) Represent the “exhaust” of the updraft causing the clouds Slide5.mp3 High clouds are cirrus, cirrostratus and cirrocumulus. Their bases occur at altitudes of about 20,000 feet or higher. The air is so cold at these high altitudes that the clouds are almost always composed of ice crystals.

84 Fig. 4-21, p. 120

85 Mammatus Anvil

86 Altostratus Fig. 4-23, p. 121

87 Altocumulus Fig. 4-24, p. 121

88 Cirrocumulus Fig. 4-25, p. 122

89 Cirrus 2nd Edition: Fig. 4-27, p. 110

90 Lenticular Clouds Slide20.mp3Clouds can take on unusual appearances like these lenticular clouds, so named for their lens-shape appearance. These clouds are associated with mountain waves that can form when air flows over a mountain barrier.

91 Lenticular Cloud Slide21.mp3Another striking example of a lenticular cloud.

92 Halo in Cirrostratus Slide22.mp3Clouds can sometimes interact with sunlight to produce spectacular optical effects such as halos and sundogs. These occur when sunlight is refracted by ice crystals and thus are seen predominately in the presence of cirrostratus clouds. Halos can encircle the sun or the moon.

93 Sundog Photo from www.photolib.noaa.govSlide23.mp3 This brilliant spot is a sundog and is located to the left of the sun in this photograph. Another spot is usually seen to the right of the sun as well. Sundogs occur when sunlight is refracted by ice crystals composing cirrus clouds when the sun is a few degrees above the horizon.

94 But halos can also happen when the clouds are below you, opposite the sun!

95 Undulatus Asperatus Photo from www.photolib.noaa.govhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jz7BgxrVmiQ#action=share

96 How do we go from clouds to precipitation?Clouds composed of tiny liquid water drops and/or ice crystals Diameter of average cloud droplet = inches which is about 100 times smaller than an average raindrop Slide4.mp3 Clouds are composed of tiny liquid water droplets and/or ice crystals. The diameter of an average cloud droplet is inches. This is about 100 times smaller than an average raindrop. The tiny cloud droplets or ice crystals that make up clouds are too small to overcome the updraft and fall as precipitation.

97 How do we go from clouds to precipitation?How do these cloud droplets grow large enough to fall as precipitation? Precipitation – liquid/solid forms of water falling from a cloud What forms can precipitation take? Slide5.mp3 We know, of course, that not all clouds produce precipitation. Precipitation is liquid or solid forms of water that fall from a cloud. So the question this lesson addresses is how do the liquid water droplets and ice crystals grow large enough within the cloud to fall as some form of precipitation. We will also look at the various forms of precipitation.

98 Growth Processes The growth process largely depends on the temperature in the cloud. Clouds can be termed either warm or cold Slide6.mp3 There are two growth processes that operate in clouds that can ultimately lead to precipitation. Which process is operating depends largely on the temperature within the cloud. This leads to classifying clouds as either warm or cold.

99 Growth in Warm Clouds Warm clouds: Temperatures are above freezing (0oC) throughout the cloud. The growth process leading to precipitation is called collision-coalescence Slide7.mp3 Warm clouds are clouds in which the temperature throughout the cloud is greater than 0 deg Celsius. The growth process leading to precipitation in a warm cloud is called the collision-coalescence process.

100 Collision-CoalescenceLarger droplets fall faster and collide with smaller droplets. Coalescence is the merging of cloud droplets by collision. Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130 Slide8.mp3 In the collision-coalescence process there must be a variation in the size of the cloud droplets. This allows the larger droplets to fall faster and collide with the smaller droplets. If all the droplets that make up a warm cloud were the same size there would be little opportunity for collisions. When the larger drops, called collector drops, collide with smaller drops they merge or coalesce, resulting in a larger size drop. Believe it or not, it takes about 1 million cloud droplets to make an average size raindrop.

101 Collision-CoalescenceFactors favoring growth by this process: 1. Numerous liquid water drops of different size 2. Large vertical depth of cloud 3. Strong updrafts Stratiform versus cumuliform clouds Slide9.mp3 The collision-coalescence process operates more effectively in clouds with a high concentration of liquid water drops. Also a thick cloud and stronger updrafts will favor this process because these factors allow a cloud drop to remain in the cloud for a longer period of time, thus giving it more opportunity to grow larger. For these reasons the collision-coalescence process produces greater rainfall rates in cumulus clouds than in stratus clouds.

102 Growth in Cold Clouds Cold clouds: Temperatures in all or part of the cloud are below 0oC. Recall: Liquid water existing at temperatures below 0oC is called supercooled water Cold clouds can be composed of supercooled water and ice crystals Ice crystals in cold clouds can grow through Accretion/Riming Aggregation Bergeron-Wegener process Slide10.mp3 The second category of clouds is cold clouds. Cold clouds are clouds in which temperatures in all or part of the cloud are below 0 deg Celsius. The growth process leading to precipitation in cold clouds is called the Bergeron process, named after a Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron. It is also known as the ice crystal process.

103 Cold Clouds Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130Slide12.mp3 This diagram represents a side view through the troposphere. The green sloping line shows the normal decrease of temperature with height. Below the red line labeled 0 deg Celsius, temperatures are warmer than 0 deg Celsius. Above that line, temperatures are colder than 0 deg Celsius. In a cold cloud, such as shown on the right, liquid water droplets are found where temperatures are above 0 deg Celsius.

104 Riming The collision of ice crystals with supercooled water dropsCauses further growth of ice crystals Result: Graupel Slide23.mp3 There are two other processes that act to further the growth of ice crystals. The first is called riming. Riming occurs when an ice crystal collides with a supercooled water drop. The liquid water freezes onto the ice crystal causing the ice crystal to grow. The ice particle that results from riming is called graupel or sometimes snow pellets. Fig. 4-30, p. 128

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106 Aggregation The collision of ice crystals (snowflakes) with other ice crystals to form a larger snowflake. Slide24.mp3 The second process that increases the growth of an ice crystal is called aggregation. This occurs when an ice crystal collides with and sticks to other ice crystals forming a snowflake. Fig. 4-31, p. 129

107 Bergeron Process In a cloud where ice crystals and supercooled drops coexist at same temp: Evaporation occurs from the supercooled droplet Deposition occurs on the ice crystal Slide18.mp3 Now, we are ready to explain the Bergeron, or ice crystal process. In a cloud in which both ice crystals and supercooled water coexist at the same temperature, evaporation will occur from the supercooled water droplet while deposition occurs onto an ice crystal. Why does this happen?

108 Bergeron Process (cont’d)Reminder: Saturation – number of molecules evaporating equals number condensing. Fewer molecules sublimating from / depositing on the ice crystal compared to that evaporating from / condensing on the supercooled water drop. So more water vapor surrounds the supercooled drop than the ice crystal (higher saturation vapor pressure) Slide19.mp3 In a cloud the air is saturated meaning the number of water molecules leaving the surface of an ice crystal or a supercooled drop equals the number of molecules returning. But due to the stronger molecular bonds within the ice crystal, there are going to be fewer molecules leaving the surface of the ice than leaving the supercooled water drop. This means there will be more water vapor molecules surrounding the supercooled water drop than surrounds the ice crystal. Fig. 4-32, p. 129

109 Fig. 4-32, p. 130

110 Bergeron Process To summarize:Ice crystals grow at the expense of the supercooled water droplets. Slide22.mp3 So the Bergeron process can be described this way: The ice crystals grow at the expense of the supercooled water droplets. This growth process leading to precipitation is very important in cold clouds outside of the tropics.

111 Types of PrecipitationSnow Rain Hail Sleet Freezing Rain Which type depends largely on how temperature changes with height Slide25.mp3 Collision-coalescence, the Bergeron process along with riming and aggregation are important processes leading to the development of precipitation. Precipitation can be in the form of snow, rain, hail, sleet or freezing rain. Which type of precipitation reaches the ground largely depends on how temperature changes from the ground up through the cloud.

112 Snow Snow forms from the growth of ice crystalsTemperatures from the ground up through the cloud are below 0oC. Myth: “it is too cold to snow” Slide28.mp3 Snow is not frozen rain. Snow forms from the growth of ice crystals. The temperature-height diagram you see here shows a typical temperature profile (in purple) from the ground up through the cloud that would support snow. Notice that temperatures remain below 0 deg Celsius which would not allow the snowflakes to melt as they fall to the ground. Have you every heard the statement, “It’s too cold to snow”? It is never too cold to snow, but it may be too cold to snow very much. At colder temperatures there is less water vapor in the air which would limit the formation of ice crystals. Fig. 4-36, p. 132

113 Rain Rain may begin as ice crystals in the cloud.Ice crystals melt as they fall. Drizzle: small drops reaching the ground Slide29.mp3 Rain can fall from warm clouds where temperatures remain above 0 deg C or from cold clouds. In the latter case, rain may actually begin as snow in the upper portion of the cloud where temperatures are below 0 deg C and then melt as they fall into air where temperatures are above 0 deg C. If the diameter of the rain drops are very small (less than 0.5 mm or .02 inches) it is called drizzle. Fig. 4-36, p. 132

114 Rain Virga: rain that evaporates before reaching the groundSlide30.mp3 When the relative below the base of the cloud is low the rain drops evaporate before reaching the ground. This phenomena is called virga (from the Latin word for “streak”) and is a common occurrence in arid and semi-arid regions such as the southwestern United States where the bases of the clouds can be several thousand feet above the ground and the humidity can be quite low near the ground.

115 Virga Slide31.mp3 The picture you see here is virga. Note the precipitation streaks falling from the cloud but not reaching the ground.

116 Shape of Raindrop Figures from www.eng.vt.edu/fluids/mscSlide33.mp3 By the way, contrary to popular depiction, raindrops are not shaped like a teardrop. The smaller raindrops are spherical in shape while larger raindrops are shaped much like you see on the right. They look more like a hamburger bun. This is due to the greater wind resistance on the raindrop as it falls.

117 Shape of a Raindrop Photo from www.ems.psu.edu/~lno/Meteo437Slide34.mp3 This is an actual photograph of a large water drop in freefall.

118 Hail Generated by convective clouds (i.e., thunderstorms)Ice pellets that grow in layers. Water freezes on an ice particle as it moves through the cloud Hail size depends on strength of updraft Photo from Bruce Haynie Slide35.mp3 Hailstones are chunks of ice that fall from cumulonimbus clouds. As ice particles, such as graupel, are carried through the cloud, they encounter supercooled drops. The liquid freezes onto the ice particle causing the ice to grow. Stronger updrafts within the thunderstorm can support the growth of hailstones to golfball size or larger. Obviously hailstones of his magnitude can inflict considerable damage.

119 Hailstones Photo from www.crh.noaa.gov/mkxSlide36.mp3 As the hailstones move both horizontally and vertically within the thunderstorm the freezing of liquid water onto their surface often causes alternate layers of opaque and transparent ice. These onion-like layers (or rings) can be seen if the hailstone is cut in two.

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121 Over 1 ft of hail in Santa Rosa, NM, 2013:Source:

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123 Sleet Winter-time precipitation, often from stratiform clouds.Very different from hail! Also called ice pellets Need an inversion Begins as ice crystals Ice crystals fall into a layer with temp >0oC Raindrops freeze before hitting the ground Slide38.mp3 Once the raindrops fall into the air that’s below 0 deg C they will either freeze before striking the ground or remain liquid in a supercooled state. This depends on the depth of the sub-freezing layer of air. If the raindrops freeze before hitting the ground it is called sleet or ice pellets. Fig. 4-36, p. 132

124 Freezing Rain Supercooled liquid drops that freeze upon contact with the ground Similar to sleet sounding except the layer near ground where temp <0oC is more shallow. Slide39.mp3 If the raindrops do not freeze before hitting the ground, they will freeze once they strike objects such as trees, roadways, power lines, etc. This condition is known as freezing rain. The layer near the ground where temperatures are below 0 deg Celsius in more shallow compared to that needed for sleet so the raindrops don’t have time to freeze before impacting the ground. Fig. 4-36, p. 132

125 Ice Storm Photo from www.photolib.noaa.govSlide40.mp3 Freezing rain can cause hazardous driving conditions, damage to trees and disruption of power.

126 The Progression of Precipitation GenerationFig. 4-40, p. 136

127 Fig. 4-41, p. 137

128 Ch 4 Water vapor supplied by evaporation/transpiration (cooling)Saturation: rate of evaporation = rate of condensation Know how humidity is measured and how saturation could be expressed in each Mixing ratio: g of water vapor / kg of air (pure measure) Vapor pressure: pressure of only water vapor (pure measure) Relative humidity: ratio of vapor pressure to saturation vapor pressure (depends on temperature and moisture content, ex: decreased temperature = increased RH) Dew point: the temperature at which cooled air would reach saturation (depends on pressure but not temperature) Dew: condensation caused on a surface when saturation is reached Frost: deposition on a surface when saturation is reached below freezing Higher dew point = higher water content Lower spread between dew point and temperature = higher RH

129 Ch 4 Homogeneous nucleation: condensation of water directly in the air, cold temperatures, not common Heterogeneous nucleation: condensation with other particles (CCN) Solute effect: reduce evaporation from drops, faster droplet formation Curvature effect: increases starting curvature Ice formation Spontaneous freezing, also not common Deposition onto ice nuclei Fog: formation of cloud droplets at the surface from increased moisture or decreased temperature Radiation cooling – cooling to dew point due to loss of radiation Advection – warm moist air cooled by a cold surface Upslope – from cooling air pushed up in elevation Steam – from warm water with cool air above it Precipitation – from warm precip into cold air

130 Ch 4 LCL (lifted condensation level): height where a parcel becomes saturated, cloud base Saturated lapse rate (6 K / km): decreased lapse rate due to the condensation of water vapor and release of latent heat Conditionally unstable: stable for unsaturated ascent, unstable for saturated ascent LFC (level of free convection): height where a parcel become unstable

131 Ch 4 Cloud types Droplet/ice growth Precip profilesCumulus cloud – instability Stratus – stable layer High altitude: Cirrus, cirro_ Mid altitude: Alto_ Droplet/ice growth Collision-coalescense: warm clouds, from droplets hitting and sticking, need variety of sizes, depth of cloud, vertical motions Riming: collision of ice with supercooled water, results in graupel Aggregation: collision of ice crystals Bergeron process: growth of ice at the expense of supercooled water, very important Precip profiles Snow: completely below freezing Sleet: shallow warm layer above the surface, melting and refreezing of precip Rain: surface above freezing Freezing rain: shallower cold layer at the surface than for sleet, precip becomes supercooled and freezes on contact with the surface