1 Cognition Domain kali9/istockphoto
2 Memory Rodrigo Blanco/istockphoto
3 Information Processing ModelEncoding – process of getting information into the memory system. Storage – The retention encoded information over time. Retrieval – The process of getting information out of memory storage. In order to store information (Memory) we need to process the information. These are the parts of information processing.
4 Information Processing ModelPHOTOS: CHARLES T. BLAIR BROEKER
5 Module 22: Information ProcessingEncoding Module 22: Information Processing
6 Encoding: Automatic Processing and Effortful ProcessingModule 22: Information Processing
7 Automatic Processing The unconscious and effortless process of encoding certain information such as space, time and frequency.
8 Effortful Processing Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.
9 Automatic/Effortful Processing
10 Rehearsal The conscious repetition of information.The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.
11 Rehearsal and Retention
12 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)German philosopher who did pioneering memory studies. Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”
13 Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
14 Overlearning Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorizedRehearsing past the point of mastery Helps ensure information will be available even under stress
15 Encoding: Serial Position EffectModule 22: Information Processing
16 Serial Position EffectThe tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily. Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list
17 Primacy/Recency Effect
18 Encoding: Spacing of RehearsalModule 22: Information Processing
19 Spacing Effect The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice Distributed Practice Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time Usually enhances the recalling of the information Massed Practice Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) Not as effective as distributed practice
20 Encoding: Encoding MeaningModule 22: Information Processing
21 Encoding Meaning Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual EncodingEncoding of meaning. Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall Acoustic Encoding Encoding information based on the sounds of the information Visual Encoding Encoding information based on the images of the information
22 Visual Encoding
23 Self-Reference EffectEnhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life
24 Encoding: Encoding ImageryModule 22: Information Processing
25 Encoding Imagery Visual images easily encodeEspecially extremely positive or negative images ROBERT CLAR/AURORA
26 Encoding: Mnemonic DevicesModule 22: Information Processing
27 Mnemonic Device A memory trick or technique.“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale “I before E except after C” to remember spelling words
28 Examples of Mnemonic DevicesMethod of Loci Mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with imaginary places Peg Words Mnemonic device in which you associate items you want to remember with a list of words you have already memorized Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs
29 Peg Word System
30 Encoding: Organizing InformationModule 22: Information Processing
31 Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units.More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.
32 Chunking Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.
33 Chunking Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.
34 Chunking
35 Module 22: Information ProcessingStorage Module 22: Information Processing
36 Three Storage Systems Three distinct storage systems : Sensory MemoryShort-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) Long-Term Memory
37 Sensory Memory Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system. Iconic store – visual information Echoic store – sound information Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance
38 Short-Term Memory The part of your memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten. Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed Also called “working memory”
39 Short-Term Memory
40 Long-Term Memory The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Holds memories without conscious effort
41 Flashbulb Memory A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event
42 Module 22: Information ProcessingRetrieval Module 22: Information Processing
43 Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storageTwo forms of retrieval Recall The type of retrieval in which you must search for information that you previously stored Ex. a fill-in-the-blank test Recognition The type of retrieval in which you must identify items you learned earlier Ex. a multiple choice test
44 Retrieval
45 Module 22: Information ProcessingRetrieval: Context Module 22: Information Processing
46 Context Effect The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information.
47 Context Effect
48 Retrieval: State DependencyModule 22: Information Processing
49 State Dependent MemoryThe enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in the same physical and emotional state you were in when you encoded the information. The retrieval state is congruent (the same as) with the encoding state
50 Forgetting and Memory ConstructionModule 23 Forgetting and Memory Construction
51 Forgetting as Encoding FailureModule 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
52 Information Processing Model REVIEWEncoding – The process of getting information into the memory system. Storage – The retention of encoded information in memory over time. Retrieval – The process of getting encoded information out of memory storage.
53 Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because:It is unimportant to them It is not necessary to know the information A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode
54 Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)
55 Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)
56 Forgetting as Storage FailureModule 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
57 The Forgetting Curve (Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885)
58 Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: InterferenceModule 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
59 Interference A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another Two types of interference: Proactive interference When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory. Retroactive interference When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory.
60 Proactive Interference
61 Retroactive Interference
62 Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Motivated ForgettingModule 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
63 Repression In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory,the process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious. A proposed way of protecting oneself from painful memories NOT well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded
64 Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
65 Memory Jigsaw Analogy Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory
66 Elizabeth Loftus ( ) Research established the constructed nature of memory. Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event. Affects eyewitness testimony
67 Misinformation Effect
68 Memory Construction: Children’s RecallModule 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
69 Children’s Testimony on AbuseResearch has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable Children are very open to suggestions As children mature their memories improve
70 Accurate Interviewing MethodsTo promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should: Phrase questions in a way the child can understand Have no prior contact with the child Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers
71 Memory Construction: Recovered MemoriesModule 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction
72 Accuracy of Memories
73 A physical and psychological experience.Emotions A physical and psychological experience.
74 Basics Emotions are necessary Basic Emotions Facial ExpressionsNeed them for survival ex. Animals survival Basic Emotions Joy, fear, anger, surprise, disgust, & sadness Do you agree? Facial Expressions Distinct expressions for each emotion Expressions appear to be universal
75 Cognition & Emotion Cognition is thinkingHumans frontal lobe provides higher-order thinking skills (judgment, decisions, control, etc.) Situational cues Learn how to feel in specific situations Fear is most likely when: Outcome is uncertain Person is certain that success is not possible
76 Biology of emotion Parts of the brain effecting emotion:hypothalamus – center for pleasure & pain Amygdala – aggression & fear Reticular formation – activity level in the body Glands & hormones Pituitary – controls all glands Adrenal – releases adrenaline in emergencies Gonads – produce sex hormones Plays a role in attraction
77 Three components of emotionPhysiological arousal Heart rate, blood pressure, breathing Expressive behaviors flush cheeks, fidgeting, facial expression Conscious experience thoughts & feelings
78 Theories of Emotion Don’t Be So Emotional
79 Emotion Theories James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory(William James & Carl Lange) Physiology → expressive behaviors → conscious experience Cannon-Bard Theory (Walter Cannon & Philip Bard) Physiology + expressive behaviors = conscious experience Two-factor Theory (Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer) Physical + cognitive label = conscious experience
80 EQ – The new IQ Emotional Quotient – EQOur ability to recognize the emotions we feel and similar emotions in other people Empathy – ability to feel emotions of others Some psychologists argue this is a type of intelligence Some businesses actually test for EQ especially when the person will work with other people SEL – Social Emotional Learning Do we teach people how to handle their emotions? Support your answer. Should we? Why or why not?
81 The End