1 Colonial Economy and Society: - economics - identities - settlersJanuary 30 – February 3

2 (Joseph Chamberlain, British Prime Minister, Birmingham, 1 April 1895)Colonialism I: Economies “We are landlords of a great estate; it is the duty of the landlord to develop his estate.” (Joseph Chamberlain, British Prime Minister, Birmingham, 1 April 1895)

3 Colonialism I: EconomiesPost WWI World: European countries focusing on material wealth: - where to find it - how to extract it - how to profit from it Joseph Chamberlain put it bluntly: colonialism was like ‘developing a private estate’

4 Colonialism I: Economies[H.F. War & J.W. Milligan, Handbook of British East Africa, 1912, xxiii]

5 Colonial Economies in ImagesColonialism I: Economies Colonial Economies in Images

6 Colonialism I: Economiescommodities and workers! These stamps identify colonies by their exploitable wealth – commodities and workers!

7 Colonialism I: EconomiesThis French Poster is Captioned: “Le Porteur”. [the carrier…]

8 Colonialism I: EconomiesStructures put in place to extract and transport wealth -- and to pay for both. Role of government: - collect taxes - convince workers to produce wealth Systems imposed to do both characterized Colonialism everywhere in Africa.

9 Colonialism I: EconomiesMajor limitation: - transportation – or rather the lack of it - where possible, steamships exploited possibilities of major rivers

10 Colonialism I: EconomiesEmpress, modern sternwheeler (British East Africa 1921) Lady Nyasa, first steamship on Zambezi, Shire Rivers (British East Africa ) Empress, modern sternwheeler (British East Africa 1921)

11 Colonialism I: EconomiesEven where river travel was possible, parts often had to be carried overland to avoid rapids and other obstacles. This required African labour.

12 Colonialism I: EconomiesAs in19th c., most goods moved overland by “porterage” (“safaris” or caravans with many porters to carry the goods).

13 Colonialism I: EconomiesShona women and children transporting grain near Great Zimbabwe, circa 1920.

14 Colonialism I: EconomiesAfrican Carriers Receiving Loads (West Africa)

15 Colonialism I: EconomiesPresence or Absence of Europeans West Africa: - Agriculture, land, remained in hands of Africans (Few exceptions eg. Cote d’Ivoire, some plantation agriculture) - Europeans in coastal cities, transport, banking, import-export companies: African merchants usually shut out

16 Colonialism I: Economies- some African peasants benefitted - some indigenous elites profited - many became workers or migrants. New economy re-shaped, exacerbated ethnic affinities, class divisions and regional strengths/weaknesses.

17 Colonialism I: EconomiesInitially, produce was extracted ‘in kind’, eg. cotton in French West Africa

18 Colonialism I: Economies- as costs of colonial administration, infrastructure rose (especially interwar years) ‘tax’ took two forms: - Money - Labour

19 Colonialism I: Economies- To earn money, people forced to work as labourers in new ‘cash economy’. - To build infrastructure (roads, railroads, ports), Africans forced to labour for little or no pay.

20 Colonialism I: EconomiesMuch African wealth lay in agriculture: - Cotton (West, East, Portuguese Mozambique) - Peanuts (West – French Soudan) - Rubber (West & central) - Cocoa (West Africa— Cote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Gold Coast) [see Reid, Map p. 195]

21 Colonialism I: Economies- Coffee (East) - Sisal (East) - Sugar (Southern) - Grapes/Citrus Fruits (North, South) - Tobacco (East/Southern) - Grains (West, East, South, Central, North)

22 Colonialism I: EconomiesThe Vizara Rubber Estate, 1921

23 ‘Natives’ Ginning Cotton on European EstateColonialism I: Economies ‘Natives’ Ginning Cotton on European Estate

24 “Natives” Taking Tobacco from Curing Barn on European EstateColonialism I: Economies “Natives” Taking Tobacco from Curing Barn on European Estate

25 Colonialism I: EconomiesSisal Plantation (East Africa c. 1912

26 Colonialism I: Economies“Cash Crops”: not for local consumption, intended for national or export market - needed chemical ‘inputs’ (e.g. fertilizers) - needed transport to market - needed a market/markets - needed land (same land used repeatedly) - needed labour (low-paid labour)

27 Colonialism I: Economies‘Cash cropping: advantageous in short term, less so in long term: - as more village land, family labour invested in cash crops, less went to producing food/food crops - often led to food shortages - less local, regional food subsistence

28 Colonialism I: EconomiesDependency: - Fewer locally produced crops led to growing dependency on imported food - ‘dependence’ meant need for more cash to purchase food

29 Colonialism I: EconomiesDependency: - sale of cash crops provided money to buy imported food. So… - Created vulnerability to import fluctuations and price variability - Vicious circle set in place involving basic necessities.

30 Colonialism I: EconomiesFor example, sisal production in East Africa: Main market in 19th century: twine for farmers in Europe and North America After introduction of sisal production in Tanganyika, market dried up as cheaper alternatives became available

31 Colonialism I: EconomiesLand used intensively: - often became exhausted: crops decline in productivity, quality - Expensive fertilizers needed – but cannot be afforded - necessitates expansion of land put under cultivation to produce same crop quantity

32 Colonialism I: EconomiesExpanding cash crops: - often exceeded local labour supply - led to “migrant labour”: workers moving from ‘poorer’ regions to ‘richer’ ones needing labour Created ‘migrant labour systems’ in various parts of continent – many remain today

33 Colonialism I: Economies- assisted some regions: coastal West African agriculture, South African, Rhodesia mining, East African plantations … - worsened conditions in poorer regions: West African Sahel (interior), regions/colonies surrounding South Africa …

34 Colonialism I: Economies- Migrant Labour as ‘colonial system’: created ‘labour reserves’ (areas Migrants came from) throughout continent Exacerbated Existing Regional Economic Disparities Created new ones – with lasting legacies (still visible today)

35 Colonialism I: EconomiesMineral deposits barely tapped: - gold (West , South) - diamonds (West, Central, South) - copper (Central, East) - tin (West) - phosphates (Sahara) - coal (West)

36 Colonialism I: Economies- All required infrastructure and labour - Most required significant capital investment [see Reid, Map p.203]

37 Colonialism I: EconomiesUnderground work: dangerous and unhealthy. Ratio: one European to twelve Africans (photo 1940s)

38 Colonialism I: EconomiesMigrant workers were required to live in compounds or barracks that they shared with dozens of other miners. They slept on concrete slabs stacked around the room.

39 Colonialism I: EconomiesIssue: how to make Africans into workers? Nomadic peoples: - Saharan camel, cattle herders - East, Southern Africa cattle herders - forced to become sedentary: process of ‘sedentarization’

40 Colonialism I: EconomiesSlavery remained key ‘labour’ issue: - slaves main labour force supporting local economies - most workers recruited by colonial forces were still slaves (or recently ‘freed slaves’, still dependents): “blind-eye” policy

41 Colonialism I: Economies“Village de liberté”

42 Colonialism I: EconomiesColonialism offered new opportunities: - army troops (remember Rashid bin Hassani…) - urban domestic labour: food preparation, laundry, prostitution

43 Colonialism I: EconomiesCooking morning meal for labourers forced into European town for work (South Africa).

44 Colonialism I: EconomiesColonialism offered new opportunities: - wage labour in mines/on plantations (even if some portion returned to ‘masters’ or ‘chiefs’) - sale of skills formerly belonging to masters (e.g. weavers, dyers, bakers, seamstresses, brick-makers …)

45 Female Cotton Workers/Spinners (Segu West Africa c.1930)Colonialism I: Economies Female Cotton Workers/Spinners (Segu West Africa c.1930)

46 Colonialism I: EconomiesQuestions Inherent in Colonial Economies : - Was ‘forced labour’ (whether for taxes or infrastructure building) slavery in disguise? - Did colonialism entrench traditional forms of exploitation that worsened under the weight/demands of Colonial Economies? - Was solving ‘the labour problem’ and adhering to the rhetoric of ‘freedom and equality for all’ (not to mention the ‘White Man’s Burden’) an inherent contradiction of colonialism?

47 Colonialism I: EconomiesTo be cont: Colonialism II: Identities