1 Computational lexicology, morphology and syntaxDiana Trandabăţ Course 2 Academic year

2 Lexicology as a part of linguisticsLexicology - part of linguistics, dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language. Vocabulary means the sum of all the words in the language. Good knowledge of the description of the vocabulary, rules of word-formation, origin and history of words helps to guess and remember the meaning of new-learned words, to master the standards of their usage.

3 Branches of LexicologyGeneral - the general study of words, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language Special - the description of the vocabulary of a given language Historical - the study of the evolution of a vocabulary as well as of its elements. This branch discusses the origin of words, their change and development. Descriptive - deals with the description of the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development.

4 Word structure A word is an independent unit of a languageA morpheme is the minimum meaningful language unit. But unlike a word it is not independent. It occurs in speech just as a constituent part of words.

5 Morphemes A root is a basic element of words. The root in English is very often homonymous with the word. It is one of the most typical features of the English language. Roots are called productive if they are capable of producing new words. Affixes may be subdivided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes. A suffix is a morpheme following the root and forming a new word. A prefix is a morpheme standing before the root and modifying meaning.

6 Exercise 1 Which of the lexicology branches will this course deal with, and why do you think so? Give the morphematic division (root, prefix, suffix) of these words: unpredictable, cooperation, multidimensional, leadership, impression.

7 Native and Borrowed WordsA native word is a word which belongs to the original stock. Native words constitute about 80% of the 500 most frequent words in a language. They may be characterized by a high lexical and grammatical valency (ability to combine with other words), high frequency and developed polysemy. They are often monosyllabic, have great word building power and enter a number of set expressions.

8 Degree of AssimilationCompletely assimilated words E.g.: wine, window, chair. Partially assimilated words a. Loan words not assimilated semantically E.g.: toreador. b. Loan words not assimilated grammatically E.g.: bacillus. c. Loan words not assimilated phonetically or graphically. E.g.: tabacco, . Unassimilated E.g. chauffeur, haute couture. The words from other languages for which there are corresponding English equivalents are so-called barbarisms. E.g.: ciao.

9 Wordformation Word-formation is a process of creating new words by means of existing elements and according to the patterns and rules of a given language. Derivation Compounding Conversion Quantitative changes

10 Derivation Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root. Suffixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a suffix to the root. Prefixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the root.

11 1 Noun-forming suffixes-age (passage, marriage, mileage…); -ance/-ence (assistance, predominance, correspondence…); -dom (freedom, kingdom…) -ee (employee, referee…); -eer/er (engineer, profiteer, manager…); -ess (manageress, heiress…) -ist (economist…) -hood (adulthood, singlehood…) -ing (building, meaning…) -ion/-sion/-tion/-ition/-ation (production, conclusion, realisation…) -ism (consumerism, perfectionism…) -ment (agreement, investment…) -ness (effectiveness…) -ship (ownership…) -ty/-ity (productivity, prosperity…) -ure/-ture (procedure, expenditure…)

12 2 Adjective-forming suffixes-able/-ible (manageable, permissible) -al/-tal/-ial/-tial (economical, statistical) -ant/-ent (redundant, dependent) -ary (monetary, inflationary) -ate/-ete (accurate, complete) -ful (dutiful, powerful) -ish (snobbish, reddish) -ive (effective, extensive) -less (effortless, powerless) -like (businesslike, lifelike) -ly (costly, orderly) -ous/-ious (ambiguous, nutritious) -some (troublesome, worrisome) -y (sexy, worthy)

13 3 Verb-forming suffixes-en (brighten, moisten) -ify/-fy (intensify, qualify) -ize/*-ise (rationalize, advertise, stabilize) ______________________________ *‘ize’ is often used in American English (maximize) as an alternative spelling of ‘ise’ in British English (maximise).

14 4 Adverb forming suffixes-ly (frequently, perfectly) *-ward/-wards (windward, backward, homewards) -wise (vote-wise, percentage-wise) _ ________________________________ *Words formed with ‘ward’ can usually be used as either adverbs or adjectives words formed with ‘wards’ are mainly used as adverbs (e.g. westward, westwards).

15 Prefixation Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the root;the simple word and its prefixed derivative usually belong to the same part of speech. The group of class-changing prefixes is rather small, e.g.: be- (belittle, befriend), de- (defrost, descale).

16 Negative prefixes Negative prefixes give negative, reverse or opposite meaning a- (apolitical, asexual) de- (destabilise, declassify) dis- (disenfranchise, disinvest) il- (before l: illegal)/ im-(before p,b,m: imperceptible)/ in-(inadequate)/ ir-(before r: irresponsible) non- (non-economic, non-profit) un- (unacceptable, undemocratic)

17 Non-negative prefixes IDegree, measures or size: hyper- (hypercreative, hyperdevoted); over- (overestimate, overcompensate); semi- (semiskilled, semi-annual); super- (super-dominant, supercharged); ultra- (ultra-conservative, ultra-secret) Repetition or possibility: em-(before p,b,m)/en- (embark, enclose) Time, place, order relation: ex- (ex-employer, ex-tenant); inter- (inter-office, inter-government); post- (post-budget, post-election); pre- (pre-delivery, pre-budget)

18 Non-negative prefixes IINumber and numeral relation: bi- (bilateral, bilingual); multi- (multi-dimensional, multi-media); uni- (unilateral, unisex) Attitude, counteraction: anti- (anti-EEC, antiestablishment); auto- (autodial, autonomy); counter- (countercharge, counteroffer); pro- (pro-business, pro-liberal) Pejoration: mis- (miscalculation, mismanage); pseudo- (pseudo-creativity, pseudo-democratic)

19 Assignment 2 English Suffix Romanian mileage costly manageablesalesmanship expenditure effortless

20 Assignment 3 Word Romanian Noun capable efficient proud ready wise

21 Assignment 4 Noun Romanian Verb Adjective argument emptiness intensitysatisfaction strength

22 Compounds Endocentric compounds – the two constituent elements are clearly the determinant and determinatum (ashtray, mousetrap, stepladder) Exocentric compounds – the determinatum is not expressed (hangover, killjoy, ladybird, forget-me-not) Rhyme-motivated (harum-scarum) Pseudo-compounds (mayday, hamburger) Semiaffixes (chairman, yes-man, kissproof)

23 Conversion - zero derivationThe process of converting words from one part of speech to another without adding any derivative element is called conversion or zero derivation. "In English almost every word can be verbed..."

24 Conversion - classificationVerbs (to nurse, to hand, to , to finger, to hammer, to empty, to up, to blind) Nouns (a go, a hunt, a lift, a find, pros and cons, whys, ups and downs, a black, breakdown, make-up, comeback, take-off) Occasional formations (nonce-words) Occasional words are usually emotionally coloured words coined for a unique occasion. E.g. Don’t darling me!, Don’t yes-mum me! Marginal Cases of Conversion Cases of formations by shift of stress are neither regular, nor productive. E.g. verb > noun (abstract, import, refill, transfer) verb > adjective ( frequent, moderate, perfect)

25 Quantitative Changes Clipping Blending Graphical AbbreviationsBack-formation

26 Clipping Clipping (shortening)The shortening of words consists of the reduction of a word to one of its parts, as a result of which the new form is used as an independent lexical unit. This type of word-formation is in English highly productive. a. Final clipping – the beginning of the prototype is retained. E.g. ad, advert < advertisement, memo < memorandum, lab < laboratory, gym < gymnasium, vac < vacuum cleaner. b. Initial clipping – the final part is retained. E.g. chute < parachute, phone < telephone, copter < helicopter, plane < aeroplane. c. The middle is retained. E.g. Liz < Elizabeth , flu < influenza, tec < detective. d. The middle is left. E.g. fancy < fantasy, bionics < binoculars, maths < mathematics, ag’st < against.

27 Blending Blending is a word-formation process of forming a new lexeme from parts of two or more other words. E.g. smog < smoke + fog, brunch < breakfast + lunch, tranceiver < transmitter + receiver, bit < binary digit, chunnel < channel + tunnel…

28 Graphical abbreviationsNew lexical units formed from the initial letters of the words and pronounced as one word – acronyms. E.g. UNESCO, AIDS, NATO, laser, radar. New lexical units formed from the initial letters of the words with alphabetic reading. E.g. BC, SOS, TV, VIP, VAT. Initial abbreviation in which the first element is a letter and the second a complete word. E.g. A-bomb, , U-pronunciation (U < upper class). Latin abbreviations. E.g. AD, BC, i.e., e.g. Shortenings formed by a part of a word and the remaining part expressed by a capital letter or a figure. E.g. 2-nite, 4 you, par-T.

29 Dictionaries Types of dictionaries:Monolingual vs. Bilingual vs. Multilingual Electronic vs. Printed General Language vs. Specialized Language (Glossaries) Alphabetic vs. Semantic Dictionaries for different formal aspects of lexical units: Dictionaries of synonyms/antonyms Dictionaries of frequency counts

30 eDTLR Electronic Thesaurus Dictionary of the Romanian LanguageWhat is contains: spelling pronunciation inflected and derivative forms etymology part of speech definitions illustrative uses of alternative senses synonyms and antonyms special usage notes

31 WordNet What is missing in traditional dictionariesIt does not say, for example, that trees have roots, or that they consist of cells having cellulose walls, or even that they are living organisms “Sense” of the super ordinate term aka hypernym (living plant or industrial plant) Coordinate terms (bushes, shrubs, …) Hyponyms - types of trees (pine, tropical, deciduous..) Information assumed to be known to everyone ( trees have barks and leaves, they grow from seeds, they make their own food by photosynthesis- probably information for encyclopedia!)

32 What is WordNet? WordNet is a lexical database for the English language. WordNet 3.0 has [1]: – 117,097 nouns (average noun has 1.23 senses) – 11,488 verbs (average verb has 2.16 sense) – 22,141 adjectives – 4,601 adverbs Created and maintained at the Cognitive Science Laboratory of Princeton University Accessible (Also Downloadable) Interfaces available in , c, dot Net , java, perl, php, python, sql etc..(JWNL, WordNet.Net, RTiA wordNet, pywordnet ..)

33 WordNet Structure Words are organized as synsets in WordNetThere are four disjoint kinds of synsets, containing either Nouns verbs Adjectives Adverbs

34 What is a synset? Basic unit of WordNetA group of synonymous words which refer to a common semantic concept Words may belong to more than one synset – first sense is the most frequent sense Words also include collocations (“eye contact’, “mix up”)

35 Synset example “car” as in “Chocolate” as in-{car, auto, automobile, machine, motorcar} {car, railcar, railway car, railroad car}. “Chocolate” as in-

36 How are synsets related?A list of pointers associated with each sysnet to express the relationship between synsets WordNet defines 17 relations 10 between synsets 5 between wordsense "gloss" (between a synset and a sentence, i.e a textual definition for each synset) "frame" (between a synset and a verb construction pattern)

37 WordNet relations

38 Beyond WordNet eXtended WordNet SentiWordNetEach term in WordNet database is assigned a score of 0 to 1 in SentiWordNet which indicates its polarity WordNet for languages other than English FrameNet SentiFrameNet

39 “The beginning of wisdom is the definition of terms.” ― SocratesUntil next week… “The beginning of wisdom is the definition of terms.” ― Socrates