1 Current Topics in Middle Eastern Studies Valerie Hoffman Professor and Head, Department of Religion Former Director, Center for South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies
2 Current Topics in Middle Eastern StudiesPolitical developments since early 20th century Directions of social change Islamism, authoritarianism and democracy ISIS Sectarian conflict and foreign interventions The Israeli-Palestinian conflict Gender issues: women’s rights, sexualities Economic stagnation
3 Independence
4 Nationalists in Early 20th century wanted:constitution elected parliament secular modernism economic development without foreign domination
5 Postcolonial RepublicsTurkey (1923 to today) Syria (1946–1949) Lebanon (1946 to today) Israel (1948 to today) Tunisia (1956 to today) Algeria ( )
6 Postcolonial MonarchiesOman (1871 to today) Northern Yemen (1911–1962) Afghanistan (1919–1973) Egypt (1922–1952) Iran (1924–1979) Saudi Arabia (1932 to today) Jordan (1946 to today) Iraq (1932–1958) Libya (1951–1969) Morocco (1956 to today) Bahrain (1971 to today)
7 Coups d’état Syria – 1949, 1963, 1966, 1970 Egypt – 1952, 2013Iran – 1953 Pakistan – 1953, 1958, 1969, 1977, 1999 Iraq – 1958, 1963, 1968 Turkey – 1960, 1971, 1980, 1997 Yemen – 1962 (north), 1972 (south) Algeria – 1965, 1992 Libya – 1969 Sudan – 1969, 1971, 1985, 1989 Oman – 1970 Afghanistan – 1973, 1978
8 Israel founded, 1948
9 1950s-1960s: pan-Arabism, socialismBaath Party – Syria, Iraq Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser ( ) Algeria Yemen Libya Sudan
10 Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966), ideologue of the Muslim Brotherhood
11 Six-Day War June 1967
12 Islamism: an ideology espousing the implementation of the Shari‘a (Islamic law) as the basis of society and politics
13 The Islamic Resurgence, beginning in 1970sincreased attendance at mosques and interest in religion wearing of “Islamic” dress Muslim Brotherhood and other groups are politically active and increasingly visible increase in number of Islamic charitable associations the language of Islam is used to support diverse ideologies
14 Anwar Sadat President of Egypt, 1970-1981Released Muslim Brothers from prison, encouraged Islamism on campuses October 1973 war Infitah – “open door” economic policy Peace with Israel
15 Camp David Accords: September 17, 1978; Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty: March 26, 1979: Anwar Sadat, Jimmy Carter, Menachem Begin
16 Muslim Brotherhood campaign rally “Islam is the solution”
17 Religio-political tensions in 1981Islamist extremist attacks on Coptic Christians Muslim-Christian riots September: arrest of religious leaders and political opponents of the regime – 2500 in all Oct. 6: while watching a military parade commemorating the 1973 war, Sadat is assassinated
18 Islamism in other Arab countriesBy 1980, Islamists dominated the student unions of universities across the Arab world In 1989, a military coup in Sudan brought Islamists to power; imposition of Shari‘a aggravated problems with non-Muslim south In Dec. 1991, an Islamist party in Algeria (FIS) won the first round of national elections; in Jan the military intervened. From , more than 160,000 were killed in civil war.
19 Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (ruled 1921-1941) (ruled 1941-1978)
20 The Iranian Revolution, 1978-79
21 Ayatollah Khomeini, leader of the Iranian Revolution of , advocated rule of religious scholars
22 Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamene’i, Supreme Leader after Khomeini’s death in The Supreme Leader, a religious figure, has more authority than the democratically elected President.
23 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, December 1979
24 Mujahideen fighting Russians in Afghanistan
25 Taliban seized Kabul in September 1996
26 Muhammad Khatami, president of Iran, 1997-2005
27 Muhammad Khatami (President 1997-2004) promoted a “dialogue of civilizations”
28 Attacks of September 11, 2001 U.S. and U.K. launch attacks on Afghanistan on October 7, 2001 U.S.-led coalition attacks Iraq on March 20, 2003
30 2000s: Public Demands for Democratic Reform: the Green Movement in Iran (2009), the Arab Spring uprisings (2011)
31 Democracy Deficit in the Middle EastEntrenched authoritarian regimes Rampant abuse of human rights Formal opposition not allowed; Islamists are the main opposition Bush promotion of democracy in 2005 Hamas win in 2006 U.S. supports authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, Jordan – fear of alternative
32 Gallup’s world poll, 2007: Muslims cite “liberty and freedom of speech” among the aspects they most admire about the West.
33 2000s: “Post-Islamism” Muslim Brotherhood leader ‘Isam al-‘Aryan: Egypt is an Islamic state; the Shari‘a is the basis of legislation.
34 The “Arab Spring”: pro-democracy protests and revolutionsTunisian Revolution (Dec. 18, 2010-Jan. 14, 2011)
35 The “Arab Spring”: pro-democracy protests and revolutionsEgyptian Revolution (Jan. 28-Feb. 11, 2011)
36 Mohamed Morsy, President of Egypt elected June 30, 2012, removed from power by Gen. Abdel Fattah El-Sisi July 3, 2013; Sisi becomes President May 30, 2014
37 The “Arab Spring”: pro-democracy protests and revolutionsYemeni Revolution (Jan. 27, 2011-Feb. 27, 2012)
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40 Libyan revolution, Feb. 17-Oct. 23, 2011Arab Spring uprising brings down the regime of Muammar Gaddafi, but no government succeeds in taking control a three-way war between the government (in Tobruk), Libya Dawn (in Tripoli), and ISIS – each of which is itself a temporary alliance of multiple political factions and hundreds of military units
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44 Social Change in the Middle East
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47 Urbanization
48 Bus in Cairo, Egypt
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52 Fighting for government-subsidized bread in Cairo
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56 Neoliberalism Open market to foreign investmentForced privatization of industries Lifting government subsidies “Bread riots” Rise in number of people living in poverty
57 Population, GDP and Average Individual IncomeCountry Population GDP Average Income Afghanistan 32,564,342 $61.69 billion 2,000 Algeria 39,542,166 $552.6 billion 14,300 Bahrain 1,346,613 $61.56 billion 51,400 Egypt 88,487,396 $945.4 billion 11,100 Iran 81,824,270 $1.284 trillion 16,500 Iraq 37,056,169 $505.4 billion 14,100 Israel 8,049,314 $268.3 billion 33,400 Jordan 8,117,564 $79.77 billion 11,900 Kuwait 2,788,534 $283.9 billion 71,000 Lebanon 6,184,701 $80.51 billion 17,900 Libya 6,411,776 $103.3 billion 16,600 Morocco 33,322,699 $254.4 billion 7,700 Oman 4,092,000 $163.6 billion 44,100 Palestine – Gaza Strip 1,816,379 $1.3 billion 876 Palestine – West Bank 2,731,052 $5.4 billion 1,924 Qatar 2,194,817 $323.2 billion 144,400 Saudi Arabia 27,752,316 $1.616 trillion 52,800 Sudan 36,108,853 $159.5 billion 4,500 Syria 17,064,854 $107.6 billion 5,100 Tunisia 11,037,225 $125.1 billion 11,400 Turkey 79,414,269 $1.515 trillion 19,600 United Arab Emirates 5,779,760(CIA) 9,445,624(UN) $605 billion 65,000 Yemen 26,737,317 $106 billion 3,900
58 Population, GDP and Average Individual IncomeCountry Population GDP Average Income Afghanistan 32,564,342 $61.69 billion 2,000 Algeria 39,542,166 $552.6 billion 14,300 Bahrain 1,346,613 $61.56 billion 51,400 Egypt 88,487,396 $945.4 billion 11,100 Iran 81,824,270 $1.284 trillion 16,500 Iraq 37,056,169 $505.4 billion 14,100 Israel 8,049,314 $268.3 billion 33,400 Jordan 8,117,564 $79.77 billion 11,900 Kuwait 2,788,534 $283.9 billion 71,000 Lebanon 6,184,701 $80.51 billion 17,900 Libya 6,411,776 $103.3 billion 16,600 Morocco 33,322,699 $254.4 billion 7,700 Oman 4,092,000 $163.6 billion 44,100 Palestine – Gaza Strip 1,816,379 $1.3 billion 876 Palestine – West Bank 2,731,052 $5.4 billion 1,924 Qatar 2,194,817 $323.2 billion 144,400 Saudi Arabia 27,752,316 $1.616 trillion 52,800 Sudan 36,108,853 $159.5 billion 4,500 Syria 17,064,854 $107.6 billion 5,100 Tunisia 11,037,225 $125.1 billion 11,400 Turkey 79,414,269 $1.515 trillion 19,600 United Arab Emirates 5,779,760(CIA) 9,445,624(UN) $605 billion 65,000 Yemen 26,737,317 $106 billion 3,900 China 1,367,485,388 $17.63 trillion 12,900 Germany 80,854,408 $3.613 trillion 44,700 India 1,251,695,584 $7.277 trillion 5,800 Indonesia 255,993,674 $2.554 trillion 10,200 Kenya 45,925,301 $134.7 billion 3,100 Malaysia 30,513,848 $746.8 billion 24,500 Mexico 121,736,809 $2.143 trillion 17,900 Russia 142,423,773 $3.568 trillion 24,800 United States 321,368,864 $17.46 trillion 54,800
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60 Rise in internet use: increasing acceptance of global values
61 Accounting for the democracy deficit“Islamic exceptionalism”: Islam makes no distinction between religion and politics Kamran Bokhari and Farid Senzai, Political Islam in the Age of Democratization (Palgrave Macmillan 2013) disagree but say Muslims do want a role for religion. Islamists diverge regarding democracy. Jihadism is a response to political repression. Islamists became main drivers of democratization; there is no unified secular organization.
62 Accounting for the democracy deficitShadi Hamid, Temptations of Power: Islamists and Illiberal Democracy in the New Middle East (Oxford University, 2014): Islamists were forced, by their participation in repressive political systems, to democratize; it is not natural for them. Muslims are conservative and want Islamic law. Islamists in power do not embrace liberal values; they are majoritarian, not democratic
63 Accounting for the democracy deficitShadi Hamid, Islamic Exceptionalism: Hos the Struggle over Islam Is Reshaping the World (St. Martin’s Press, 2016): There is something different about Islam’s relationship to politics. Repressive secularism in Tunisia explains large number of volunteers from that country to fight for ISIS.
64 Haroon Ullah, Vying for Allah’s Vote: Understanding Islamic Parties, Political Violence, and Extremism in Pakistan (Georgetown University Press, 2014) Participation in elections can lead to moderation or/and extremism For many Pakistanis, the term shari‘a connotes good governance, not enforcement of specific laws. Islamist parties vary in their interpretations of Islamic texts, their views on how shari‘a should function, their organizational structure There is little relationship between personal religiosity and support for Islamic parties or organizations.
65 Sectarianism and Religious Conflict
66 Sects of Islam: Sunnis, Shi‘a/Shi‘ites, Ibadisca % of Muslims are Sunni Countries with significant Shi‘ite populations: Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain, Syria, Saudi Arabia Ibadis: mainly in Oman; small populations of Berber Ibadis in Algeria, Libya, Tunisia
67 Sects of the Shi‘a/Shi‘itesTwelvers/Imamis: Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, etc. Isma‘ilis: mainly in the Indian subcontinent and among Indian migrants elsewhere Zaydis: northern Yemen
68 Shi‘ites in the Middle Eastca. 90% of people in Iran (Twelver Shi‘a) 60% of Iraqis (Twelver Shi‘a) 60% of Bahrainis (Twelver Shi‘a) 40% of Lebanese (mainly Twelver Shi‘a) 30% of Yemenis (Zaydi Shi‘a) ca. 28% of Turks (mostly Alevis) 25% of Kuwaitis (mainly Twelver Shi‘a) 15% of Syrians (mostly Alawites) 16% of Emiratis 10-15% of Pakistanis 8-12% of Afghans 5% of Qataris
69 Sectarianism in the Middle EastSectarian differences have not historically usually resulted in violent conflict. Colonial policies of divide-and-rule favored minority domination in Iraq (Arab Sunnis) and Syria (Alawites). Saudi Arabia promotes Wahhabism Iranian revolution alarmed U.S., Saudi Arabia; Iran sponsored Hezbollah Iran-Iraq war,
70 Sectarianism in the Middle EastU.S., Saudi sponsorship of mujahideen in Afghanistan encouraged spread of radical Salafism Aftermath of Gulf War of 1991 Impact of invasion of Iraq in 2003 Political and socioeconomic grievances in Syria, Yemen and Bahrain were sectarianized by foreign involvement ISIS targets Shi‘a, Yazidis, Christians
71 Changing Gender Relations
72 The classic Islamic “patriarchal contract”Kinship is the basis of social organization Patrilocally extended household Senior man has authority over everyone Marriages are arranged by the family Men maintain their wives; wives obey husbands Honor and shame – not Islamic, but pervasive in the Middle East and South Asia
73 Decline of the “Patriarchal Contract”State regulation of the family and economy Urbanization – growth of nuclear family Expansion of education, wage-earning jobs Early marriage becomes rare in urban areas Desegregation of the sexes in the public sphere Marriage partners more often chosen by couple
74 The Dislocations of ModernityVirginity of girls and unmarried women remains important, even as marriage is delayed Discrepancy between aspirations of young, educated women and expectations of their families Resentment against loss of patriarchal control is expressed through sexual harassment and violence Use of rape as a political weapon to dishonor political opponents Police states sometimes use rape and sexual torture against men and women
75 Perspectives on Women’s Rights in MENAFreedom House reports of 2005, 2010: a pervasive, gender-based gap in rights and freedoms in MENA Many scholars since 1990s: Islam is not the reason for women’s oppression (Deniz Kandiyoti, Valentine Moghadam, Lila Abu-Lughod) Haideh Moghissi: the efforts of scholars to find women’s empowerment through Islamism serves the interests of Islamists who blatantly abuse women. Mona Eltahawy: For women in the Arab world, it’s worse than you think.
76 Sexuality in the Middle EastStrong gender binary Hypermasculinity Homophobia Sex-change operations in Iran