1 Developmental PsychologyAlejandro Ezquerro-Nassar Department of Psychology

2 “The discipline that attempts to describe and explain the changes that occur over time in the thought, behaviour, reasoning, and functioning of a person due to biological and environmental influences.”

3 Nature-Nurture ”debate”Alzheimer’s Weight Extraversion Alcoholism Happiness Depression IQ

4 Nature vs Nurture Is the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by genes (nature) or the environment (nurture)

5 Infant Learning NativistImportant aspects of perception and other cognitive processes are innate We have built in knowledge of what sensory inputs mean Empiricist All knowledge comes from experiences and our senses We relate sensory inputs to each other to determine what they mean

6 Infants Upon birth, humans can:Discriminate between different tones, pitches, and loudness It’s suggested that newborns show a preference for their mother’s voice See within a range of about four feet Discriminate brightness, color, and follow a moving stimulus with their eyes

7 Infants Grasping reflex:Infants close their fists tightly around objects placed in their palms If the object is lifted, an infant can hang on and support his or her weight for about a minute Rooting reflex When an infant’s cheek is touched, their head turns toward the stimulus while opening their mouth until the stimulus is in their mouth This triggers a sucking reflex These are considered reflexes (automatic responses) but are replaced by directed responses (voluntary) with development

8 Motor Development

9 Linguistic DevelopmentAge Linguistic Achievement 3 months Cooing 4 months Babbling 10 months First word 18 months About 20 words One word utterances 24 months About 250 words Two word utterances 30 months About 500 words Three plus word utterances

10 Compare wheredidyougrowupwithgrandpa vs dedenlenereyegittinsen

11 Language Development GameConcepts Phonemes Whole-Object Constraint Word / Naming Explosion Over-Extension & Under-Extension Pragmatics Developmental Theories of Language

12 How the Game Works Your goal is to form a language.Since we only have a class period, your language will use a very limited world (i.e., shapes of varying size and color) and a very limited set of phonemes (i.e., 5). To illustrate your competence as using your language, one person should be able to describe a picture while another person produces it. Though this world is far less complicated than ours, communication is still complicated. Let’s try (in English).

13 k h grobman - devpsy.org

14 Rules of the Game During the game, you can only speak with your groups’ phonemes. During “time-outs” you can speak English but you can not talk to your group-mates about the game. You can take notes (with English) to help reduce the working memory demands of the game. But do not show anybody what you wrote. At the end of class, we’ll have each group showcase their ability to communicate in the same way we just did with English.

15 Your Phonemes Your group gets to use 5 phonemes. Each group has a unique set. Here’s a sample that does not match any actual group: ch chair, beach, nature affricate u soon, through, boot monophthong This means you get the sounds /ch/ and /u/. You do not get the sound /t/ even though a ‘t” is in bold. The words in the middle illustrate the use of the phoneme. The right column tells you the type of phoneme; it’s how your mouth, tongue, and vocal cords move. You can combine your phonemes in any way. For example, you might create a word that sounds like, “chooch.”

16 What are Phonemes? Phonemes are basic units of sound in a language. Everybody says particular phonemes slightly differently, but when you say a different phoneme, you say a different word. (e.g, “ch” is a different phoneme from “th” as “chug” is different from “thug.”)

17 Getting Ready to Play Pull out your lists of phonemes. Remember these are the only phonemes you can use in the game. Now pull out a single item from your world. When the game begins, say something using your language before you take anything else out of the envelope.

18 Time In! Speak only with phonemes from your language and try to communicate about the objects in your world.

19 Whole Object ConstraintOne thing that facilitates children’s word learning is the biases (i.e., assumptions) they have when they hear new words. Children behave according a whole object constraint. They assume that a novel word refers to the entire object we are paying attention to, rather than about a part or a quality of the object. Did you follow the whole object constraint within your group?

20 Time In! Speak only with phonemes from your language and try to communicate about the objects in your world.

21 Language Explosion Between speaking our first words (about 12mo - 16mo) and starting to put together sentences (about 20mo - 30mo), we go through a period where we acquire a vast number of words (15mo - 22mo). As children approach 2 years of age, they experience a language explosion. They learn about 10 to 20 new words each week. Most of those words are nouns. Did you experience a language explosion during the game? Were most of the words you created nouns?

22 Time In! Speak only with phonemes from your language and try to communicate about the objects in your world.

23 Over-Extension & Under ExtensionAn over-extension or under-extension of a word’s meaning, is a particularly common error for children as they learn new words. An over-extension is to use a word to refer to more than its intended referent. For example, a child may say “ball” to refer to balls, marbles, balloons, and eggs. An under-extension is to use a word to refer to less than its intended referent. For example, a child may only refer to her teddy-bear as “bear” rather than recognizing that everybody else’s teddy-bear and real bears are also “bears.” Were over-extensions or under-extensions a particular common error for you during the game? Or was another kind of error more common?

24 Time In! Speak only with phonemes from your language and try to communicate about the objects in your world.

25 The spy sees the police officer with the gun. Pragmatics The spy sees the police officer with the gun. The spy sees the police officer with the binoculars. Who has the gun, the police officer or the spy? Who has the binoculars, the police officer or the spy?

26 The spy sees the police officer with the gun. Pragmatics The spy sees the police officer with the gun. The spy sees the police officer with the binoculars. Who has the gun, the police officer or the spy? Who has the binoculars, the police officer or the spy?

27 Pragmatics The spy sees the police officer with the gun.The spy sees the police officer with the binoculars. Notice how the grammar of the two sentences is exactly the same. The ability to use background knowledge and context to understand language is called pragmatics. Like children, did you eventually develop pragmatics (in this game)?

28 Time In! Speak only with phonemes from your language and try to communicate about the objects in your world.

29 Language Development TheoriesThree broad kinds of developmental theories explain language acquisition. Nativism: special innate abilities, that may include a language module, where acquiring language is different from other learning Interactionism: language is fundamentally a social experience Connectionism: Language is acquired through the regularities in our experience and exposure. Did you experience in today’s language game illustrate to you how one theory might be supported or refuted?

30 Time to test your language….

31 Testing your Language DevelopmentDivide your group into two sub-groups, talkers and listeners. The “listeners” get an envelope of the shapes. They should face away from the blackboard. The “talkers” face the blackboard and tell the “listeners” what to make, using their language. No group should look at what the others are doing. I’ll provide the drawing on the next slide. Then we will compare how close each group was to reproducing the picture.

32 A Picture

33 Important Times in DevelopmentIn general, a child’s reaction to their environment depends on their age (and amount of knowledge) Critical Periods Times in development when certain events have an enormous impact The same events have less impact if they occur earlier or later If they happen too late, certain milestones will not be reached and a certain path of development is set

34 Important Times in DevelopmentSensitive Periods Similar to the idea of critical periods, but with less rigid boundaries During this time, the baby is particularly sensitive to a particular influence For example, attachment to parents is more easily formed at an early age

35 Practice Some maturation will happen regardless of outside influences (due to genetics) Some milestones cannot be reached until a certain age; the infant’s brain and muscle tone must reach sufficient development Some development depends on experience as well For example, animals raised in complete darkness do not develop all structures of the visual system and therefore cannot see properly later on if exposed to light

36 Developmental TheoristsPiaget Mahler Erikson Kohlberg There is question about how accurate any of these theorists are, but their contributions are important in a historical sense

37 Piaget Piaget is considered the first theorist to say that children were not miniature adults, but were different and went through a series of psychological changes on the way to adulthood

38 Piaget Believed that human development and behavior come from consistent and reliable patterns of interaction with the environment called schemas Schemas are goal oriented strategies that people use to explore and learn about the world and their environment

39 Ex. a “grabbing an object” schemaPiaget Said that children learn through: Adaptation: the exchange between an individual and his or her environment Assimilation The incorporation of one’s environment into an existing schema Accommodation The adaptation or modification of an existing schema to the characteristics of a new object Ex. a “grabbing an object” schema

40 Piaget’s Stages Sensory-Motor: birth to 2 yearsPreoperational: 2 – 7 years Concrete Operational: 7 – 11 Formal Operational: 11-15

41 Sensory-Motor Stage Birth – 2 yearsThe infant uses his or her senses and motor functions to understand the world Infants do not differentiate between “me” and “not me” and lack object permanence Object permanence: the understanding that an object exists outside of our immediate experience Infants do not understand that a rattle continues to exist even if he or she is not holding it (show video)

42 Sensory-Motor Stage Birth – 2 yearsA not B effect When a 9 month old sees an experimenter hide a toy under a blanket on their right (A), the child will remove the blanket to retrieve the toy If the experimenter then hides the toy under a blanket on their left (B) (while the baby is watching) the baby will continue to search for the toy on the right The baby interprets location A as being part of the toy’s identity

43 Sensory-Motor Stage Birth – 2 yearsIn the later 6 months of this stage, babies begin to form representational thoughts and can keep an object or event in their memory For example, understanding that the toy exists even when it’s not seen is a mental representation of that toy At this age, a child will become angry or frustrated if a toy is not where he or she left it

44 Preoperational Stage 2 – 7 YearsChildren gain a well organized mental representation of the world Develop a more sophisticated set of schemas called “operations” Operations allow an internal manipulation of ideas according to a stable set of rules This begins at about 7 years of age Use of symbols, language, and speech Understanding of past, present, and future

45 Preoperational Stage 2 – 7 YearsChildren remain egocentric – do not understand that other people have different experiences from themselves In a study, children 4 – 7 were given a 3-D model of a scene While the child viewed the scene from one location, a teddy bear was placed in different locations around the model When asked what the teddy bear would see, children consistently said that the bear saw the same thing they did

46 Egocentrism

47 Preoperational Stage 2 – 7 YearsFailure of Conservation Equal sized glasses A and B were put side by side and filled with the same amount of colored liquid 4 year olds can easily say that the amounts are equal A new glass C is added that’s taller and narrower than the original glasses, and the liquid is poured from A to C When asked if there is more liquid in glass B or C, children say C because the level of higher Children do not yet understand that the amount of liquid is constant, even though it is being acted upon

48

49 Conservation of NumberA young child will reply that there are more objects when they are spread further apart from each other

50 Conservation of Number

51 Conservation of Number

52 Concrete Operational 7 – 11 YearsChildren understand conservation and that changes to one aspect of a situation by be compensated for by changes to a different aspect Children can understand concrete operations, but lack the ability to think abstractly Ex. 8 or 9 year olds can understand that 4 is an even number and is an odd number; 6 is even, is odd Tend to not see the pattern that adding 1 to any even number yields an odd number

53 Formal Operational Stage 11 – 15 YearsChildren expand from concrete thinking to abstract or hypothetical thinking Can consider hypothetical possibilities

54 Object Permanence and OcclusionInfants spent more time looking at C than at B This suggests that they expected the rod to be one solid piece, even though they could not see the entire rod

55 Problems with Piaget A Object Permanence and Occlusion4 month olds were an image of a rod that moved back and forth behind an occluding object A

56 Object Permanence and OcclusionAfter becoming habituated to the original display, babies were shown a non-occluded image B with an unbroken moving rod C with a broken rod B C

57 Understanding of Numbers6 month olds were shown two panels simultaneously with pictures of two or three simple objects A drum was sounded over a loudspeaker with booms in sets of two or sets of three When hearing “boom boom,” babies looked at the panel with two items When hearing “boom boom boom,” babies looked at the panel with three items This implies that the babies connected the idea of “two” or “three” between sound and visual stimuli

58 Conservation of NumberChildren generally do demonstrate understand that adding an item increases the number of items in a set and that adding one and subtracting one leave the total unchanged Lack of conservation of number implies that a child confuses, for example, the length of a row with the number of objects in a row

59 Conservation of Number (Issues)In Piaget’s research, children were asked the same questions twice very quickly, one after another It’s theorized that children may have believed that the experimenter did not like the child’s first answer (“they’re the same”) and therefore changed it when asked again

60 Egocentrism In a study, 2 ½ - 3 year olds were given a photograph and asked to show it to their mother, who was sitting opposite the child Children turned the photo so that it faced the mother, implying that they realized that she had a different viewpoint than they did

61 Egocentrism and BeliefsThere is evidence that a developmental change occurs between 3 and 4 ½ years of age In “false-belief tests” a child and teddy bear are seated in front of two boxes, one red and one green The child and teddy bear watch the experimenter put candy in the red box, and the experimenter shows both that the green box is empty The bear is taken out of the room, and the child watches the experimenter switch the candy to the green box

62 Egocentrism and BeliefsThe teddy bear is brought back into the room, and the experimenter asks the child where the teddy bear will look for the candy At age three, children will say the green box “because that’s where it is” By age 4 ½ children will say that the bear will look in the red box because that’s where the bear thinks the candy is This indicates knowledge that others have a different experience from our own, and understanding that others may have a false belief

63 Theory of Mind https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GOCUH7TxHRI&t=121s (4:00-6:20)

64 Margaret Mahler Object Relations TheoryFocuses on the relationship between a mother (or caregiver) and the infant and the effect of this relationship on the infant’s development of a sense of self Believes that individuals are born with a drive to build interpersonal relationships The individual’s sense of self and others affects all subsequent interpersonal relationships

65 “Object” refers not only to literal objects, but to other peopleMargaret Mahler In Object Relations, the main developmental task is differentiating between the self and others The three main stages of development are: Autistic stage: newborn – 1 month Symbiotic stage: 1 – 5 months Separation-Individuation stage: 5 – 24 months “Object” refers not only to literal objects, but to other people

66 Autistic Stage newborn – 1 monthThe infant is focused entirely on him or herself Mostly unresponsive to external stimuli Does not perceive others as separate beings

67 Symbiotic Stage 1 – 5 monthsThe infant begins to perceive the mother/caregiver as a “need-satisfying object” The infant feels unity with the mother, but begins to understand that the mother is a separate being

68 Separation – Individuation StageThe Separation-Individuation Stage is made up of four sub-stages Differentiation: 5 – 9 months Practicing: 9 – 14 months Rapprochement: 14 – 24 months Object Constancy: after 24 months

69 Separation – Individuation StageDifferentiation Sub-Stage: 5 – 9 months The infant’s attention shifts from being inwardly focused to outwardly focused The infant begins to separate from the caretaker (for example, learning to crawl)

70 Separation – Individuation StagePracticing Sub-Stage: 9 – 14 months The infant continues to separate from the caretaker More autonomous functioning The infant becomes more independently mobile and more active Ex. walking, playing, etc.

71 Margaret Mahler Separation – Individuation StageRapprochement Sub-Stage: 14 – 24 months The baby begins to want to act independently The baby moves away from his or her mother/caregiver, but regularly comes back to make sure that the caregiver is still there

72 Margaret Mahler Separation – Individuation StageObject Constancy Sub-Stage: after 24 months The baby has an internalized mental representation of his or her caregiver and understands that the caregiver continues to exist even when they are not together

73 Mahler and Object RelationsA transitional object is an object that the individual can mentally associate with a specific person when that person is not physically present Ex. a “security blanket” or for adults a piece of jewelry/heirloom

74 Erikson Psychosocial TheoryEmphasizes individual’s ability to change and shape their personalities Believes that childhood is an important time in development, but that development continues throughout the lifespan People have the ability to adapt to and change their environments Considers the importance of the individual’s own psychological system, but also their biology and social systems

75 Erikson Each stage of development focuses on a particular area of growth, builds on the previous stages, and paves the way for future stages Each stage has a psychosocial crisis which must be resolved The crises are marked by a conflict between two opposing personality traits Healthy development requires a balance between the two Crisis resolution depends on the individual and his or her social environment

76 Erikson Trust v. Mistrust Birth to 1 year Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt2 – 3 years Initiative v. Guilt 4 – 5 years Industry v. Inferiority 6 – 11 years Identify v. Role Confusion 12 – 18 years (adolescence) Intimacy v. Isolation 20 – 35 years Generativity v. Stagnation 35 – 50 years Ego Integrity v. Despair 50 years and up

77 Trust v. Mistrust: birth – 1 yearThe infant develops a sense of trust in others through being nurtured and loved If an infant is not nurtured and loved, he or she will experience a high level of mistrust This causes the child to be withdrawn later in life

78 Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt: 2 – 3 yearsThe child begins to develop skills that allow him or her to be autonomous i.e., motor and verbal skills The child becomes more confident and in control If a child is not provided with what he or she needs socially (ex. nurturance) he or she will feel ashamed and less confident

79 Initiative v. Guilt: 4 – 5 yearsThe child becomes curious and moves around into new spaces to explore The child learns to play with others A child who is not allowed to take initiative will feel guilty and fearful

80 Industry v. Inferiority: 6 – 11 yearsA child develops a need to do things well, work, and to provide in the future School and peers are important in assisting the child in his or her mastery over tasks If a child fails to achieve a sense of mastery, he or she will feel inferior and incompetent

81 Identity v. Role Confusion: 12 – 18 yearsAn adolescent begins to create his or her own identity and integrate the various components of him or herself into a whole person An adolescent who is unable to integrate will experience role confusion

82 Intimacy v. Isolation: 20 – 35 yearsThe individual learns to build reciprocal relationships with others socially and occupationally Individuals who do not build these relationships will feel isolated

83 Generativity v. Stagnation: 35 – 50 yearsThe individual develops the capacity to care and nurture An individual who fails at this stage will focus only on caring for him or herself

84 Ego Integrity v. Despair: 50+ yearsThe individual learns to accept his or her own life achievements and those of significant others. If the individual fails at this, he or she will experience despair.

85 Kohlberg Believed that at birth people lack all morals, ethics, and honesty; moral development is leaned from the individual’s family Three levels of moral development, each consisting of two stages

86 Kohlberg Pre-Conventional Level: birth – 9 yearsConventional Level: 9 – 15 years Post-Conventional Level: 15 - adult

87 Pre-Conventional Level Birth – 9 YearsStage 1 Begins at school age In this stage we behave according to social norms to avoid punishment Stage 2 The individual acts according to his or her own best interest

88 Conventional Level 9 – 15 YearsStage 3 The individual behaves to gain the approval of others Stage 4 The individual behaves in accordance with laws and rules

89 Post-Conventional 15 - AdultStage 5 The individual begins to gain a genuine interest in others and to understand social mutuality Stage 6 The individual develops autonomous morality based on individual conscience Kohlberg believed that no one actually reaches level 6

90 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentLevel Stage Social Orientation Pre-Conventional 1 Obedience: Avoid punishment 2 Personal reward Conventional 3 Good boy/good girl Gain approval and avoid disapproval 4 Law and order Conformity with rules Post-Conventional 5 Social contract 6 Universal ethical

91 Summary of Developmental TheoristsOpinions differ over whether stages must happen sequentially and whether we move from one stage to another abruptly or gradually Opinions differ over what happens if stages are not completed in the ideal fashion It’s not truly possible to “prove” any one of the theories completely true or false They largely give suggestions to guide research and interpret behavior

92 Attachment Old theory said that infants are attached to their mothers because the mother satisfies basic physical needs Food, warmth, physical protection, relief from pain This was known as the “cupboard theory”

93 Attachment John Bowlby and others said that there had to be more to attachment than fulfillment of basic needs For example, babies show interest in strangers who do not provide food The new belief was that infants are born with social needs and therefore seek contact The mother therefore fulfills needs and provides interaction, safety and a feeling of comfort

94 A “wire mother” that had a nipple to dispense milk Attachment Harlow conducted a study using newborn rhesus monkeys raised without their mothers Each monkey lived in a cage with two figures A “wire mother” that had a nipple to dispense milk A “terry-cloth mother” that did not provide food but was cuddly

95 Harlow The monkeys spent significantly more time with the terry-cloth mother Harlow presented the monkeys with a mechanical toy that made loud noises; the monkeys rushed to the terry cloth mother and clung to “her,” suggesting that they were seeking comfort

96 Harlow Overall, Harlow concluded that babies are attached to their mothers because the mother provides comfort and is not simply a source of things

97 Attachment In further studies, Harlow isolated monkeys completely (provided food, but no terry-cloth mother figure) Three months of isolation had little effect, but longer periods led to major disturbances The monkeys huddled in a corner of the cage and rocked back and forth When exposed to normal monkeys, they did not engage in play and instead withdrew, rocked, and bit themselves

98 Attachment – Harlow continuedMonkeys raised in isolation later on could not engage in normal interactions with other monkeys and tended to become violent If they had babies, they showed no ability to love or care for their offspring In some cases, the monkeys actually abused their babies

99 Attachment What about humans?Infants raised in relative isolation in orphanages showed major developmental impairments Some were desperate for love and attention Others were apathetic to people – they did not approach or seek comfort from other people Other studies of people who were raised in deprived orphanage environments show intellectual deficits, particularly in language and abstract thinking; heightened physical aggression; delinquency; indifference to others

100 Repairing the Damage Monkeys raised in isolation were later placed with monkeys younger than themselves The younger monkeys sought contact, but would not be physically aggressive The older monkeys eventually adapted and were able to play and normally interact While monkeys who were raised in isolation showed difficulty mothering a first child, they reacted normally to second born babies

101 Repairing the Damage Similar results have been found with humansPeople who were taken out of the orphanages eventually caught up with their peers, while those who stayed in orphanages longer did not

102 Attachment Styles There are two aspects to attachment:Being with the caregiver brings contentment Being away from the caregiver evokes distress Initially, infants cannot always differentiate their own mother from other adults. By 6 – 8 months, the infant knows who his or her mother is and becomes upset when they are separated

103 Ainsworth and the Strange SituationMary Ainsworth developed the following method of studying a baby’s attachment (generally used with 1 year olds) to his or her mother: A child is brought to an unfamiliar playroom and is given the chance to explore and play with the mother present After some time, a stranger (the experimenter) comes in, speaks to the mother, and approaches the child

104 Ainsworth and the Strange SituationThe mother leaves the room briefly, leaving the child alone with the stranger After a few minutes, the mother returns and the stranger leaves (In some variations, the mother leaves twice. The second time the stranger leaves as well, leaving the child alone in the room) The focus is primarily on how the baby responds to the mother’s returning, with some attention paid to the baby’s behavior when the mother is absent. Babies are said to have one of the following “attachment styles”

105 Attachment Styles Securely attachedThe child explores the room while the mother is there and may interact with the stranger Shows some distress when the mother leaves Is very happy and quickly consoled when the mother returns People who are securely attached as children tend to be better adjusted socially as adults and have better self esteem

106 It is believed that these pairs interact on the mother’s terms only Attachment Styles Anxious-Ambivalent Insecure Attachment Does not explore/explores very little when the mother is present Becomes upset and panicky when the mother leaves Acts ambivalent during the reunion E.g., runs to the mother to be picked up, but immediately wants to be put down Might push the mother away It is believed that these pairs interact on the mother’s terms only As adults, they are more likely to have difficulties in relationships and worry that their partner does not love him or her

107 Attachment Styles Anxious-Avoidant Insecure AttachmentThe child is distant and aloof from the beginning of the interaction Shows little distress when the mother leaves the room Ignores the mother when she comes back It is believed that the mother is generally disengaged from the child and often does not meet his or her needs. The child comes to feel that his or her actions have little to no impact on the mother As adults they are more likely to have problems with intimacy and invest little in social or emotional relationships

108 Attachment Styles Disorganized Attachment (this was added later)The child cries during the separation, but is not comforted by the mother when she returns The child may avoid her, curl up on the floor, or show stereotyped behaviors (i.e., rocking, hitting oneself) This is more common if the mother experienced a loss shortly before or after the child’s birth and was severely depressed The child is likely to act like a caretaker for his or her mother

109 Attachment Styles

110 Summary of Attachment In America, secure attachment is considered ideal and about 65% of 1 year olds are securely attached. Which attachment style is considered healthiest depends on cultural variables and values

111 Summary of Attachment It is unclear whether the mother causes the child’s behavior entirely, or if it is a reciprocal relationship If a child naturally engages less, the mother may adapt and learn to engage less with her child More recent research has shown that babies exhibit the same attachment styles with fathers