1 Diamond 9: Using your nine pieces of paper, write down the top nine characteristics of a PM who deals successfully with foreign policy issues. You might think specifically about PMs you have studied before, or generally about the ideal qualities of a PM. Now, arrange your pieces of paper like this (or in a different shape, if it works better) to show the most important and least important characteristics. Most important Ideas (you don’t have to use them: Versatility Responds well to a crisis Least important

2 1. On your radar graph, use one colour to mark how much of a threat each foreign policy issue posed (in your opinion) to the PM. The points closest to the centre are low-level threat, and furthest out are high-level threat. Join up these points. 2. As we go through the sources, use a different colour to mark how well Wilson dealt with each issue. Join up these points. In the ‘Explanation’ boxes, explain how well Wilson responded to the challenge of each foreign policy issue. Wilson: in office October 1964-June 1970, and again March

3 How much of a threat did this issue pose? 2. Explanation:2. Relations with America 1. Northern Ireland 3. Relations with Europe 5. Explanation: 3. Explanation: 5. Rhodesia 4. East of Suez 4. Explanation: How well did Wilson deal with this threat?

4 Northern Ireland Context: Northern Ireland had been ‘created’ in 1922, after the Irish War of Independence. Northern Ireland was divided into 6 counties that remained part of the UK. Though most people in Ireland as a whole were Catholic, most people in Northern Ireland were Protestant: the socio-economic system of Northern Ireland was dominated by Protestant unionists. In the 1960s, Catholics complained of discrimination in employment and housing. The NI police force (the Royal Ulster Constabulary, or RUC) was accused of being biased against Catholics. Problem(s): In 1964, the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland began to challenge this perceived discrimination. Some unionists (loyalists) feared that the Irish Republican Army (IRA: an organisation that did not accept the partition of Ireland) would start a new campaign. Unionists set up paramilitary (non-state military force) organisations to defend the union. Civil rights marches in 1968 protested against the perceived discrimination. In 1969 the situation worsened: the Apprentice Boys (a loyalist organisation) held their annual march in Derry, and were attacked by nationalists. The RUC tried to storm the area but were held back by 2 days of rioting. Pictures of the RUC officers beating Catholics were shown around the world. In May 1974, the Ulster Workers’ Council went on strike – they were protesting against the Sunningdale Agreement which had been signed under Heath in December The strikers opposed the sharing of political power with Irish nationalists.

5 Wilson’s response: In response to a request from the government of Northern Ireland, Wilson deployed the British Army in August 1969, to try to restore peace. This was known as ‘Operation Banner’. When he was not in office in 1971, Wilson formulated a 15-year programme that was designed to lead to the unification of Ireland. This proposal was not adopted by Heath’s government. In May 1974 (when back in office), Wilson condemned the Ulster Workers’ Council strike. Yet he refused to pressure the British Army to confront the loyalist paramilitaries who were intimidating the workers. Later, Wilson referred to the strikers as ‘spongers’ who expected Britain to pay for their lifestyles. The strike was ultimately successful in breaking the 1973 Sunningdale Agreement. Extra info: It has since been suggested that Wilson had a secret plan to cut all UK ties with Northern Ireland, and transform it into an independent dominion – the plan was obviously never realised, although it says a lot about Wilson’s attitude towards Northern Ireland!

6 America Context: Wilson was pro-American, and supported the Atlantic Alliance. When the Vietnam War began to escalate after 1964, US President Lyndon Johnson tried to gain support and approval from US allies. Australia sent troops to Vietnam and Johnson wanted the same from Britain. The Cold War was ongoing, and Britain wanted to ensure that the US remained committed to the defence of Europe. The continued Soviet threat was shown by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia (which stopped the communist system becoming diluted there). Problem(s): The Vietnam War was a balancing act for Wilson. He wanted to maintain the Atlantic Alliance, but the Vietnam War had become unpopular in Britain (especially with the Left) so he risked losing political support if he backed the War. Britain couldn’t really afford military involvement in the War, yet Wilson did need the US to support the value of the sterling and to avoid devaluation.

7 Wilson’s response: Wilson visited the US in December In a speech, he outlined his understanding of the relationship between Britain and the US: In terms of the Vietnam War, Wilson gave moral but not military support to the US. This annoyed the US. It also annoyed a number of Labour MPs and supporters, who wanted the Labour government to condemn the US for the Vietnam War. “In the changed circumstances of the sixties, we still seek a closer relationship based on common purposes and common aims. We have our differences. There are always differences between friends. We are good enough friends to speak frankly to one another, but there will never be anything peevish or spiteful.”

8 Europe Context: The Labour government that came to power in 1964 was not very committed to continuing the Conservative policy of seeking entry to the EEC. In 1962, Gaitskell had fought passionately against Britain’s first application. Many on the Labour left, including Michael Foot and Barbara Castle, and the trade unions, were also hostile to the EEC. They saw it as a club for capitalists. On the other hand, there were several Europhiles in the cabinet, including Roy Jenkins and George Brown. Problem(s): Harold Wilson was uncertain on the EEC issue: he preferred the Atlantic Alliance and stronger links with the Commonwealth, but he could see the strength of the economic reasons for joining. He was also conscious of the need to keep the Labour Party united on the issue.

9 Wilson’s response: By 1966, Wilson was convinced of the economic benefits of joining the EEC. Wilson’s Cabinet agreed to back a new application for EEC membership. The chances of it succeeding were low: the bid appeared half-hearted because of doubts within Labour. De Gaulle was still President of France and there was little sign he had changed his mind about Britain’s entry to the EEC. Wilson and George Brown (who had become Foreign Secretary in 1966) went to Paris to meet de Gaulle in January They thought the meeting had gone well. They then toured the other five EEC countries, trying to gain support. In June 1967, Wilson went back to Paris again. Gaulle put him on the spot, demanding assurances that Britain would separate itself from the ‘special relationship’ with the US. Wilson would not do this. In November, de Gaulle used his veto against British entry: Britain’s application was again rejected.

10 East of Suez Context: The Labour government was committed to continuing the decolonisation policy that had started under the Conservatives, and had accelerated after Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech. Problem(s): The Labour government knew from 1964 that there would have to be a reduction in Britain’s military commitment to the East of Suez for economic reasons.

11 Wilson’s response: The minister of defence, Denis Healey, introduced spending cuts designed to bring the defence budget below £2 billion by Healey’s defence white paper in 1967 set a timetable for troop withdrawals from Adan, the Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore. Some thought that, given the economic situation that Labour inherited, these cuts didn’t go far or fast enough. Wilson did not want to give up the nuclear deterrent, either, despite its expense. The Wilson government announced that it would continue to deploy US Polaris missiles. This all changed in January 1968, with the drastic spending cuts introduced by Chancellor Roy Jenkins after the 1967 devaluation crisis. Withdrawal from East of Suez was rapidly accelerated. Troops were to be pulled out of Aden, the Arabian Gulf, Malaysia and Singapore by the end of Despite the wishes of both Wilson and Healey, the development of a new high-tech warplane, the TSR2, was abandoned because it was too expensive.

12 Rhodesia Context: Macmillan had made his ‘wind of change’ speech in Cape Town because his target was the white minority regimes who thought they could resist reform. But the white minority regimes were not persuaded. In southern Africa, Macmillan’s speech was seen as a threat. In 1961, South Africa – which rejected the idea of a majority rule – had left the Commonwealth and moved towards an apartheid system (strict segregation of whites and non-whites). In 1963, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland had broken up into 3 separate entities. In 1964, northern Rhodesia became the new independent state of Zambia; Nyasaland became independent Malawi. Southern Rhodesia hoped for independence, but Britain made it clear that this couldn’t happen until majority rule replaced the political domination of the white population. Problem(s): A political row blew up when Ian Smith became PM of Rhodesia (the first PM of Rhodesia to be born there rather than in Britain: he had been a farmer before going into politics). In 1965, Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence for Rhodesia without accepting majority rule.

13 In 1966, Wilson set out the government’s policy towards Rhodesia:Wilson’s response: In 1966, Wilson set out the government’s policy towards Rhodesia: Wilson hoped he could reach a solution quickly in Rhodesia, possible through oil sanctions. Wilson met Smith in December This meeting seemed to make progress, but Smith then went back on everything he said as soon as he got home. Oil sanctions had little effect, as Rhodesia could get supplies in other ways. More talks were held in October 1968, but by then Smith felt in an even stronger position. Smith believed he could rely on support from the right wing of the Conservative Party, and that he just needed to wait for Britain to give in. Wilson’s diplomacy got nowhere. The situation upset the Commonwealth and many on the Labour left wing, and also made Britain look weak. “It is Britain’s insistence on standing by principles in the Rhodesian conflict which has kept the Commonwealth together... It is that same insistence on principles which proclaims to the world that in Britain’s long and not inglorious history of granting freedom to previously dependent territories, we are determined to see that the last chapter shall not be allowed to tarnish those that have gone before… we shall not be prepared to abandon principles which in their very moral inspiration represent the very basis of our democracy and everything which this movement stands for.”

14 Compare the two lines on your radar graph. In which areas of foreign policy were Wilson’s actions effective, and in which area were his actions ineffective? How well did Wilson respond to the aspects of foreign policy which you have judged to pose the highest threat(s)? Look back at your Diamond 9. To what extent did Wilson demonstrate these characteristics in his responses to the situations in Northern Ireland, America, Europe, East of Suez and Rhodesia?

15 Elena, my suggestion for a class activity is a radar graph – give each aspect of foreign policy a rating /10 for threat and on the other side a rating /10 for how well Wilson dealt with it. Don’t forget they don’t have this book, so don’t be afraid to use the activities on here

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