1 Disciplinary Literacy in ScienceTimothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago

2 Disciplines use language differentlyDisciplines represent cultural differences in how information is used, the nature of language, demands for precision, etc

3 Science language is specializedScience language differs from conversation, fiction, and even other informational and academic texts Science text has changed (and is changing) These changes are in degree only because they are influencing other informational texts

4 Science text is specializedNot only is the vocabulary and grammar of science different than other content language, but science text is different in other ways Science relies heavily on graphic elements, not to illustrate the text or to set a mood, but to convey meanings that repeat or elaborate the prose or even independent information

5 Science textbooks are part of thisScience textbooks are not as extreme in their linguistic, textual, and graphic features as science studies and texts for science experts However, they, too, differ from conversation, fiction, and most other academic and informational texts in the same ways

6 Science instruction needs to teach…Science content Science methodology How to read and write science Science classes are the necessary venues for this as they are the only classes that would read such texts Ignoring this aspect of science, avoiding the use of science text because of its difficulty, or handling science reading through round robin reading will not help

7 Disciplinary literacy instruction in science should teach..Not just how to make sense of such texts But the reasons why science texts are different (in terms of understanding the ways that science knowledge is created, communicated, and evaluated)

8 Morphology Differs by DisciplineOf course, different disciplines use different words But the frequency or value of prefixes, suffixes, and (especially) combining forms differs by discipline See: Word ID: Assessment Across the Content Areas by Linda Gutlohn & Frances Besselieu

9 Prefixes ELA Math Science Soc Stuides com- X con- de- dis- ex- in-inter- pre- pro- re- sub- trans- un-

10 Derivational SuffixesELA Math Science Soc Stuides -al X -ar -ary -ate -ation -ent -ic -ism -ist -ity -ive -ize -ment

11 Derivational Suffixes (cont.)ELA Math Science Soc Stuides -or X -sion -tion -ture

12 Greek Combining Forms ELA Math Science Soc Stuides ana X arch auto biochem cracy, crat dem, demo eco electro, elect endo geo gon gram

13 Greek Combining Forms (cont.)ELA Math Science Soc Stuides graph X hedron hydro logy (ology) meter, metr micro nym, onym -oid para photo poly scope sphere

14 Greek Combining Forms (cont.)ELA Math Science Soc Stuides sym- X syn- therm, thermo tri-

15 Morpheme Frequency Gutlohn & Bessellieu (2014) examined frequency of morphemes in 4500 multisyllabic content area words to identify the morpheme frequency Half the morphemes occurred across content areas, though the words they appeared in may be content specific The following morphemes were only frequent in science text: trans-, -ism, chem, electro/electr, endo, hydro, micro, oid, photo, scope, therm/thermo

16 Morpheme Frequency (cont.)The following morphemes were frequent only in science and one other discipline: ar, -ism, -or, bio, geo, meter/metr, sphere

17 Analysis of Grammar Grammatical complexity in Academic English (2016)Douglas Biber & Bethany Gray Quantitative linguistics – comparative and historical analyses of language

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19 Grammatical features in academic proseNouns and noun phrases Nouns: overall ~60% of all content words in academic prose are nouns Nouns vs. pronouns Nouns much more common than pronous Absence of pronouns Generally rare in academic prose Specific pronouns: this, and one Much more common in academic prose (this is used for textual reference; one used for general rather than specific reference Plural nouns Much more common in writing than conversation, used most in academic Nominalizations Much more common in academic (expecially with –tion, -ity Anaphoric expressions Usually expressed with a determiner + noun (rather than pronoun)

20 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Nouns and noun phrases (cont.) Nouns and/or noun binomial phrases Much more common in academic prose

21 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Nouns and noun phrases (cont.) Definite article: the Much more common in writing than conversation, most common in academic prose Demonstrative determiners Most common in academic prose (this and these) Noun phrases with modifiers 60% of all noun phrases in academic prose have a modifier Noun phrases with pre-modifiers Common in academic prose and newspapers Nouns as pre-modifiers Very common in academic prose Noun phrases with post-modifiers Vdery common in academic prose and newspapers Noun phrases with multiple pre-modifiers Most common in academic prose

22 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Adjecties and adjective phraes Adjectives overall Much more common in academic prose than fiction or conversation Attributive adjectives Much more common in academic prose Specific predicative adjectives More in academic particularly: different, important, difficult, possible, necessary, available, useful Derived adjectives Much more common in academic prose (especially adjectives form with -al)

23 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Verbs and verb phrases Copula be copular verb become Most common in academic prose Existence verbs Much more common in writing than conversation (most common in academic: e.g., include, involve, indicate) Specific lexical verbs Several vers more common in academic prose: Activity verbs: use, produce, provide, apply, form, obtain, reduce Communication verbs: describe, suggest Mental verbs: consider, assume, determine Causative/Occurrence/Existence verbs: follow, allow, require, include, involve, contain, exist, indicate, represent

24 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Verbs and verb phrases (cont.) Specific prepositional verbs Many p. verbs are more frequent in academic text: Activity: deal with, be applied to, be used in, be derived from Communication: refer to Mental: be known as Causative/Occurrence/Existence: lead to, result in, occur in, depend on, consist of, be based on, be associated with, be related to Verbs with inanimate subjects Common only in academic prose (e.g., such comparisons, suggest….) Derived verbs More common in academic prose, especially verbs formed with re- and -ize

25 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Verbs and verb phrases (cont.) Tense and aspect Academic prose relies primarily on simple aspect, present tense verb phrases Passive voice Much more common in academic prose Specific passive verbs Several verbs are especially common in this: BE+made, given, taken, used, found, seen, considered, shown

26 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Adverbs and adverbials Specific adverbs Notably more common in academic prose: often, usually, significantly more, relatively, especially, particularly, generallly, indeed Specific amplifiers A few notably more common in academic prose: extremely, highly Specific degree adverbs A few are more common relatively, fairly, slightly Linking adverbials More common in academic prose, especially: however, thus, therefore, for example Purpose and concessive adverbials Most common in academic prose (e.g., in order to, although)

27 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Dependent clause features Finite relative clauses with adverbial gaps Most common in academic prose; especially with in which (e.g., a mutant viemntin in which Ser82 is changed to S82E) Participle clauses as post-modifiers in noun phrases Very common in academic prose and newspapers (e.g., the assumptions given above) Noun complement clauses with a that-clause Very common in academic prose (e.g., the fact that, a possibility that, no doubt that) Noun complement clauses with a to-clause Very common in academic prose (an attempt to, the ability to) Abstract noun + of + ing-clause Very common in academic prose, especially with head nouns: way, cost, means, methods, possibility, effect, probelem, process, rule (methods of assessing error)

28 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Dependent clause features (cont.) Extraposed that-clauses Most common in academic prose, esppecially controlled by the adjectives clear, unlikely, likely, and possible and impossible Extraposed to-clauses Most common in academic prose, especially controlled by adjectives Subject predicative to-clauses Common only in academic prose (and newspapers) (e.g., The first step is to evaluate the expression) Ing-clauses controlled by adjective predicates Most common in academic prose (e.g., capable of, important for/in, useful for/in, formalist stragegies are useful for analyzing drama) Concessive adverbial clauses Most common in academic prose (though, although)

29 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Other features Prepositions Most common in academic prose Of-phrases MosMuch more common in writing than oral language; most common in academic prose Prepositional phrases as post-modifiers in noun phrases Very common in academic prose (e.g, the effect on the final state) Stance noun + of-phrase Most common in academic prose, especially possibility of, value of, importance of, problem of, understanding of That/those + of-phrase Common only in academic prose

30 Grammatical features in academic prose (cont.)Other features (cont.) Preposition + which in relative clauses with adverbial gaps Common only in academic prose, especially in which and to which Selected coordination tages Common only in academic prose (etc.) Qualifier each Most common in academic prose Semi-determiners same, other, certain, and such Muh more common in academic prose Dual gender referece Common only in academic prose Lexical bundles with noun phrases and/or prepositional phrases Very common in academic prose (e.g., the end ot the, the nature of the, one of the most, the way in which, the extent to which, the fact that the, as a result of, at the same time of, on the other hand)

31 Specifics of science textTechnical, abstract, dense, tightly knit language (that contrasts with interactive, interpersonal style of other texts or ordinary language) More nouns, fewer verbs—more noun modification Nominalization (turning processes and properties into nouns) Passive voice (“the atoms were excited by the heat”) Suppression of agency (readers need to focus on causation not intention) Phrasal complexity instead of clausal complexity

32 Humanities, popular science, social science, specialist science

33 Noun-centric prose (Fang & Scheppegrell)Sentence density: unpacking complex nouns Experimental verification of Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect was made 11 years later by the American physicist Robert Millikan Every aspect of Einstein’s interpretation was confirmed, including the direct proportionality of photon energy to frequency.

34 Nominalization (Halliday, 2004)Glass cracks more quickly the harder you press on it. Cracks in glass grow faster the more pressure is put on. Glass crack growth is faster if greater stress is applied. The rate of glass crack growth depends on the magnitude of the applied stress. Glass crack growth rate is associated with applied stress magnitude.

35 Clausal versus phrasal complexityClausal complexity The French tended [to trap and trade for furs,] but the British settlers [who were starting [to survey land in [what is now Tennessee and Kentucky]], looked like incipient farmers. Phrasal complexity This may indeed be part [of the reason [for the statistical link] [between schizophrenia and membership [in the lower socioeconomic classes.]]]]

36 Nouns as pre-modifiersOriginally just titles: King, Doctor, Duke, Captain, Lord… and specific places: Hampton Court, Dumbarton Castle, India Company, Greenwich Park Then concrete nouns (sand bank, flannel roller), institutions (family history), states or conditions (cancer cells, croup cases), other intangibles (heat apoplexy, quarantine restrictions) Now almost any combination and number Philae comet lander alien ‘cover-ip’ conspiracy theories emerge

37 Nouns as pre-modifiersOriginally just titles: King, Doctor, Duke, Captain, Lord… and specific places: Hampton Court, Dumbarton Castle, India Company, Greenwich Park Then concrete nouns (sand bank, flannel roller), institutions (family history), states or conditions (cancer cells, croup cases), other intangibles (heat apoplexy, quarantine restrictions) Now almost any combination and number Philae comet lander alien ‘cover-ip’ conspiracy theories emerge

38 Nouns as pre-modifiers (cont.)Including nominalizations (e.g., population base, inoculation experiment, regression analysis Various meanings—relationship between N1 and N2 (that is composed of, that comes from, where one can find, specializing in, se for/with, belonging to, associated with, about, that regulates/administers, etc. The terms are not necessarily technical, but the only way to understand the relationship between the nouns is to know the relationship

39 Nouns as pre-modifiers (cont.)Pressure hose (a hose able to withstand pressure) Pressure ratio (a ratio that measures pressure)

40 Phrasal modifiers Prepositional phrases (in-phrases particularly common in science) Appositive as well The presence of ingested particles in the multivesicular bodies in the relatively early stage confirms the findings of… Big increases in pre and post phrasal modifiers (expansion of the prepositions and their meanings)

41 Other compression devicesOmission of clause connections (however, thus, consequently, etc.) Use of colons (One possible pathogenic mechanism can be excluded with certainty in man: a physiological decrease of intestinal lactase activity with advancing age.)

42 Implications Scientific language is maximally compressed and less explicit The reader either has to know the relationships or has to revise the sentences to understand what they mean The Department of Water and Power manages hazardous waste Hazardous waste is managed (who is the agent?) Hazardous waste management (not even clear there is an activity)

43 Help with Sentence StructureIn dense prose, help find the subject and verb: “However, on August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a group of individual astronomers and astronomical societies from around the world, made an announcement.”

44 However, on August the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a group of individual astronomers and astronomical societies from around the world made an announcement

45 Who was the sentence about?the International Astronomical Union (IAU) Who are they? a group of individual astronomers and astronomical societies from around the world What did they do? made Made what? an announcement When? on August

46 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

47 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

48 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

49 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

50 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

51 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

52 Meanwhile, the nebula continued to orbit the new Sun until it formed a large flat ring around it. Scientists call this ring a “protoplanetary disk.” The disk, or ring, was hottest where it was closest to the Sun, and coolest at its outer edge. As the disk swirled around the Sun, the Sun’s gravity went to work. It pulled and tugged at the bits of rock, dust, ice, and gas until they came together in clumps of material we now call the planets.

53 Sentence Reduction The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells.

54 Sentence Reduction The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Technical vocabulary: DNA coliphage T2 polio-virus RNA polyoma host cells

55 Sentence Reduction The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Technical vocabulary: DNA/RNA: proteins that promote reproduction coliphage T2: a bacteriophage that is active against e. coli polio-virus polyoma host cells: cells that a bacteriophage is introduced into

56 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for polyoma for the DNA about 1 hour, of coliphage T2 compared is to 18 to 24 hours about 2 minutes, for their host cells compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes,

57 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject:

58 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2

59 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized?

60 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2)

61 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles?

62 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles?

63 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles? The DNA of coliphage T2

64 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles? The DNA of coliphage T2 Restate first clause:

65 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles? The DNA of coliphage T2 Restate first clause: The DNA of coliphage T2 doubles…

66 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles? The DNA of coliphage T2 Restate first clause: The DNA of coliphage T2 doubles… Recast the object:

67 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles? The DNA of coliphage T2 Restate first clause: The DNA of coliphage T2 doubles… Recast the object: is about 2 minutes… in about 2 minutes

68 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What is the subject: The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 Is it nominalized? Yes, “doubling” is taken from the verb “doubles” (to increase by a factor of 2) What doubles? The DNA of coliphage T2 Restate first clause: The DNA of coliphage T2 doubles… Recast the object: is about 2 minutes… in about 2 minutes Restate first clause: The DNA of coliphage T2 doubles in about minutes

69 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech: “compared”?

70 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb

71 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to?

72 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA to double

73 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA to double What is being compared?

74 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double

75 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared?

76 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA of the host cells to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of the host cells to double

77 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA of the host cells to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of the host cells to double What does the ; tell you?

78 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA of the host cells to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of the host cells to double What does the ; tell you?

79 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA of the host cells to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of the host cells to double What does the ; tell you? A separate idea will be added What does “it” refer to?

80 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA of the host cells to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of the host cells to double What does the ; tell you? A separate idea will be added What does “it” refer to?

81 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Part of speech “compared”? Verb What does “that” refer to? The amount of time it takes for DNA of the host cells to double What is being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of coliphage T2 to double With what is it being compared? Time it takes for the DNA of the host cells to double What does the ; tell you? A separate idea will be added What does “it” refer to? The time it takes polio-virus RNA to double

82 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What does “for polyoma about 1 hour mean?

83 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What does “for polyoma about 1 hour The amount of time it mean? takes for DNA to double in polyoma

84 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What does “for polyoma about 1 hour The amount of time it mean”? takes for DNA cells to double in polyoma What is the polio-virus comparison?

85 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What does “for polyoma about 1 hour The amount of time it mean”? takes for DNA cells to double in polyoma What is the polio-virus comparison? It takes polio-virus RNA minutes to double, but it takes hours for their host cells to double

86 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What does “for polyoma about 1 hour The amount of time it mean”? takes for DNA cells to double in polyoma What is the polio-virus comparison? It takes polio-virus RNA minutes to double, but it takes hours for their host cells to double What is the polyoma comparison?

87 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. What does “for polyoma about 1 hour The amount of time it mean”? takes for DNA cells to double in polyoma What is the polio-virus comparison? It takes polio-virus RNA minutes to double, but it takes hours for the host cells to double What is the polyoma comparison? It takes 1 hour for the DNA in polyoma to double, but it takes hours for the host cells to double

88 Sentence Reduction (cont.)The doubling time for the DNA of coliphage T2 is about 2 minutes, compared to 20 minutes or more for that of the host cells; for polio-virus RNA it is 20 to 30 minutes, for polyoma about 1 hour, compared to 18 to 24 hours for their host cells. Coliphage DNA/RNA Doubling time Host Cell DNA Doubling Time Coliphage T2 2 mins. 20 mins. Polio-virus RNA 20-30 mins. 18-24 hrs. Polyoma 1 hr.

89 Graphic Elements Because language is inadequate to fully describe scientific phenomenon, science text is necessarily multiimodal including illustrations, photographs, charts, tables, and other graphics These graphics may repeat the prose information, supplement it, or even operate independently of it

90 Graphic Elements in the DisciplinesThink of the differences between the graphics in a math book and a science book Math books embed the formulas and graphic elements—controlling how the text is read (precision) Science books require reader to move back and forth between graphics and prose (conceptual-multiple versions)

91 Graphic RelationshipsSpatial Sequential Comparative Categorical Causal Hierarchical

92 Water cycle: Verb

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95 Literacy in Science/Technical SubjectsDetermine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical texts and topics. Integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table). Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based on research findings, and speculation in a text. Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks, attending to special cases or exceptions defined in the text. Analyze the structure of the relationships among concepts in a text, including relationships among key terms (e.g., force, friction, reaction force, energy). Translate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text into visual form (e.g., a table or chart) and translate information expressed visually or mathematically (e.g., in an equation) into words. Compare and contrast findings presented in a text to those from other sources (including their own experiments), noting when the findings support or contradict previous explanations or accounts. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to important distinctions the author makes and to any gaps or inconsistencies in the account. Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks; analyze the specific results based on explanations in the text. Synthesize information from a range of sources (e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, resolving conflicting information when possible.

96 Meninges activity

97 Science reading Technical vocabulary (different phonemes, multi-noun terms) Complex, condensed language (phrasal complexity, nominalizations, appositive, colons, etc.) Graphic information equally important to the prose