1 Dominio Público Denis Borges Barbosa

2 La teoria del market failure y la propiedad intelectual J.H. Reichman, Charting the Collapse of the Patent- Copyright Dichotomy: Premises for a restructured International Intellectual Property System 13 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L.J. 475 (1995). J.H. Reichman, Charting the Collapse of the Patent- Copyright Dichotomy: Premises for a restructured International Intellectual Property System 13 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L.J. 475 (1995). Para ser breve, ese capítulo del derecho asegura a los creadores una cuantidad de derechos de propiedad exclusiva, planeado para superar el problema del dominio público, que resulta de la naturaleza intangible, indivisible y inexaurible de las creaciones intelectuales, que permite que esas creaciones sean copiadas por los que no pagaran los costos y sufrieran los riesgos del esfuerzo creativo Para ser breve, ese capítulo del derecho asegura a los creadores una cuantidad de derechos de propiedad exclusiva, planeado para superar el problema del dominio público, que resulta de la naturaleza intangible, indivisible y inexaurible de las creaciones intelectuales, que permite que esas creaciones sean copiadas por los que no pagaran los costos y sufrieran los riesgos del esfuerzo creativo

3 ¿Por que dominio público...? The Architecture of Innovation, Lawrence Lessig we recall the public domain as if it were simply an echo from some romantic past; we embrace (...) the idea that the whole world is best managed when divided among private owners, and we proceed to divide the world among private owners. Most Americans agree with the Disney Corporation that Mickey Mouse is Disney’s now and forever; they don’t even notice the irony then when Disney can make millions off of Hugo’s creation, the Hunch Back of Notre Dame, or Prokofiev or Pocahontas. So invisible is public domain that we don’t even see it when it is everywhere around; so invisible is the idea that the free might matter to creativity, that when it is enclosed, we are convinced this is progress.

4 Una tensión medular

5 Declaración Universal de los Derechos humanos Derecho a tomar parte libremente en la vida cultural de la comunidad, a gozar de las artes y a participar en el progreso científico y en los beneficios que de él resulten Derecho a tomar parte libremente en la vida cultural de la comunidad, a gozar de las artes y a participar en el progreso científico y en los beneficios que de él resulten. Derecho a la protección de los intereses morales y materiales Derecho a la protección de los intereses morales y materiales.

6 Declaración Universal de los Derechos humanos 1. 1. derecho a tomar parte libremente en la vida cultural de la comunidad, a gozar de las artes y a participar en el progreso científico y en los beneficios que de él resulten 1. 1. derecho a la protección de los intereses morales y materiales

7 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición Constituición de Chile 24. El derecho de propiedad en sus diversas especies sobre toda clase de bienes corporales o incorporales. 25. La libertad de crear y difundir las artes, así como el derecho del autor sobre sus creaciones intelectuales y artísticas de cualquier especie, por el tiempo que señale la ley y que no será inferior al de la vida del titular El derecho de autor comprende la propiedad de las obras y otros derechos, como la paternidad, la edición y la integridad de la obra, todo ello en conformidad a la ley. Se garantiza, también, la propiedad industrial sobre las patentes de invención, marcas comerciales, modelos, procesos tecnológicos u otras creaciones análogas, por el tiempo que establezca la ley. Será aplicable a la propiedad de las creaciones intelectuales y artísticas y a la propiedad industrial lo prescrito en los incisos segundo, tercero, cuarto y quinto del número anterior

8 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición Constituición de Chile 21. El derecho a desarrollar cualquiera actividad económica que no sea contraria a la moral, al orden público o a la seguridad nacional, respetando las normas legales que la regulen. 21. El derecho a desarrollar cualquiera actividad económica que no sea contraria a la moral, al orden público o a la seguridad nacional, respetando las normas legales que la regulen.

9 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición 10º. Corresponderá al Estado, asimismo, fomentar el desarrollo de la educación en todos sus niveles; estimular la investigación científica y tecnológica, la creación artística y la protección e incremento del patrimonio cultural de la Nación. 10º. Corresponderá al Estado, asimismo, fomentar el desarrollo de la educación en todos sus niveles; estimular la investigación científica y tecnológica, la creación artística y la protección e incremento del patrimonio cultural de la Nación. 12º La libertad de emitir opinión y la de informar, 12º La libertad de emitir opinión y la de informar, 21. El derecho a desarrollar cualquiera actividad económica 21. El derecho a desarrollar cualquiera actividad económica El derecho de propiedad en sus diversas especies sobre toda clase de bienes corporales o incorporales El derecho de propiedad en sus diversas especies sobre toda clase de bienes corporales o incorporales

10 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición No es solo una cuestión de cultura, mas de capitalismo Liberdade de iniciativa v. direito exclusivo Liberdade de iniciativa v. direito exclusivo Ruy Barbosa, comentários à Constituição de 1891 - Não ha só diversidade, senão até antagonismo, e essencial, entre as duas, uma das quaes é a declaração de uma liberdade, a outra a garantia de uma propriedade exclusiva. Ruy Barbosa, comentários à Constituição de 1891 - Não ha só diversidade, senão até antagonismo, e essencial, entre as duas, uma das quaes é a declaração de uma liberdade, a outra a garantia de uma propriedade exclusiva.

11 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición Ação DIRETA DE INCONSTITUCIONALIDADE Ação DIRETA DE INCONSTITUCIONALIDADE (MEDIDA LIMINAR) Nº 2.054-4 - DF - Tribunal Pleno (DJ, 10.03.2000) - Relator: O Sr. Ministro Ilmar Galvão (MEDIDA LIMINAR) Nº 2.054-4 - DF - Tribunal Pleno (DJ, 10.03.2000) - Relator: O Sr. Ministro Ilmar Galvão Com isso, adverte Alexy (citado pelo primeiro), o que se quer dizer é que os princípios têm um peso diferente nos casos concretos e que o princípio de maior peso é o que prepondera. De modo que, havendo conflito entre dois deles, o de menor peso deve ceder em prol do mais importante, sem que, todavia, e, por óbvio, esse último deva desaparecer do sistema jurídico, como ocorre em termos de antinomia de normas. Com isso, adverte Alexy (citado pelo primeiro), o que se quer dizer é que os princípios têm um peso diferente nos casos concretos e que o princípio de maior peso é o que prepondera. De modo que, havendo conflito entre dois deles, o de menor peso deve ceder em prol do mais importante, sem que, todavia, e, por óbvio, esse último deva desaparecer do sistema jurídico, como ocorre em termos de antinomia de normas.

12 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición Y que prevalece? Y que prevalece? “this court has consistently held that the primary purpose of ou patent laws is not the creation of private fortunes for the owners of patents but is to promote the progress of science and useful arts (...)”, Motion Picture Patents Co.v. Universal Film Mfg. Co., 243 U.S. 502, p. 511 (1917). “this court has consistently held that the primary purpose of ou patent laws is not the creation of private fortunes for the owners of patents but is to promote the progress of science and useful arts (...)”, Motion Picture Patents Co.v. Universal Film Mfg. Co., 243 U.S. 502, p. 511 (1917).

13 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición The primary objective of copyright is not to reward the labor of authors, but "to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts." Art. I, § 8, cl. 8. To this end, copyright assures authors the right to their original expression, but encourages others to build freely upon the ideas and information conveyed by a work.” Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co., Inc., 499 U.S.340, 349-50 (1991) The primary objective of copyright is not to reward the labor of authors, but "to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts." Art. I, § 8, cl. 8. To this end, copyright assures authors the right to their original expression, but encourages others to build freely upon the ideas and information conveyed by a work.” Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co., Inc., 499 U.S.340, 349-50 (1991)

14 Intereses Constitucionales en oposición “It may seem unfair that much of the fruit of the compiler's labor may be used by others without compensation. As Justice Brennan has correctly observed, however, this is not "some unforeseen byproduct of a statutory scheme." Harper & Row, 471 U.S., at 589 (dissenting opinion). It is, rather, "the essence of copyright," ibid., and a constitutional requirement. “It may seem unfair that much of the fruit of the compiler's labor may be used by others without compensation. As Justice Brennan has correctly observed, however, this is not "some unforeseen byproduct of a statutory scheme." Harper & Row, 471 U.S., at 589 (dissenting opinion). It is, rather, "the essence of copyright," ibid., and a constitutional requirement.

15 Los problemas del dominio público Derechos al resultado de la creación v. Derechos de acesso a la creación Derechos al resultado de la creación v. Derechos de acesso a la creación Derechos a la creación prímigena v. Derechos a la creación transformativa – paródia, crítica y Creative transformation (Caso Henrich müller) Derechos a la expression y información Derechos a la imagine o privacidad v. expressión cultural societal

16 ¿Lo que es dominio público?

17 ¿Lo que es en dominio público? Dominio Público Originario Pertenecen, originariamente, al dominio público, las obras de autor no conocido, incluindo las folclóricas, pero em relación a las ultimas, hay que excluirse la proteción legal a los conocimientos étnicos y tradicionales. (Eliane Abrão)

18 ¿Lo que es en dominio público? Dominio público consequente Caem em dominio público as obras cujo prazo de proteção haja decorrido, ou cujo autor tenha falecido sem deixar herdeiros ou sucessores. Essa nova situação em que se encontram essas obras significa que seu conteúdo e forma são devolvidos à coletividade, extinto o privilégio temporário conferido aos autores, para que todos possam fazer uso livre e gratuito dela, respeitadas, apenas, a sua integridade e o seu crédito. (§2 o., art. 24). (Eliane Y Abrão)

19 ¿Lo que es en domínio público? Artículo 11. Pertenecen al patrimonio cultural común: a) Las obras cuyo plazo de protección se haya extinguido; b) La obra de autor desconocido, incluyéndose las canciones, leyendas, danzas y las expresiones del acervo folklórico; c) Las obras cuyos titulares renunciaron a la protección que otorga esta ley; d) Las obras de autores extranjeros, domiciliados en el exterior, que no estén protegidos en la forma establecida en el artículo 2.º, y e) Las obras que fueren expropiadas por el Estado, salvo que la ley especifique un beneficiario. Las obras del patrimonio cultural común podrán ser utilizadas por cualquiera, siempre que se respete la paternidad y la integridad de la obra.

20 ¿Lo que es dominio público? The public domain consists, in fact, of a vast and diverse assortment of contents (...). The public domain is, moreover, different sizes at different times and in different countries. (Palmela Samuelson, Digital Information, Digital Networks, and The Public Domain, Berkeley, 2001 ) (Palmela Samuelson, Digital Information, Digital Networks, and The Public Domain, Berkeley, 2001 )

21 ¿Lo que es dominio público? (Brasil) Art. 8º I - as idéias, procedimentos normativos, sistemas, métodos, projetos ou conceitos matemáticos como tais; II - os esquemas, planos ou regras para realizar atos mentais, jogos ou negócios; III - os formulários em branco para serem preenchidos por qualquer tipo de información, científica ou não, e suas instruções; IV - os textos de tratados ou convenções, leis, decretos, regulamentos, decisões judiciais e demais atos oficiais; V - as informações de uso comum tais como calendários, agendas, cadastros ou legendas; VI - os nomes e títulos isolados; VII - (o aproveitamento industrial) ou comercial das idéias contidas nas obras.

22 ¿Lo que es dominio público? Expresse ou tacite, l´exclusion des idées et la protection de la seule forme de l´oeuvre (…) apparaît comme un fonds commun du droit d´auteur dans le monde Claude Colombet, Grands Principes du Droit d´auteur et des droits voisins dans le monde. Chile…. cualquiera que sea su forma de expresión

23 ¿Lo que es dominio público? A Map of the Public Domain and Adjacent Terrains (Samuelson) scientific principles,, & the like scientific and other research methodologies, statistical techniques, educational processes ideas, concepts, discoveries, theories, hypotheses facts, information, data, know-how, knowledge laws, regulations, judicial opinions, government documents, legislative reports innovations qualifying for IP protection in which no rights are claimed or in which rights have expired (e.g., copyright, patent, plant variety protection)

24 ¿Lo que es dominio público? innovations not qualifying for IP protection because unoriginal, obvious, generic, or otherwise outside the bounds of IP (e.g., telephone directories, fonts, incremental technical innovation,genericided trademarks such as aspirin, new physical exercises, folklore, grocery lists, blank forms) words, names, numbers, symbols, signs, rules of grammar and diction, punctuation about to expire IPR fair use & like widely usable open source imminent w/o restrictions discoveries

25 El dominio público...pagante Entre 1973 e 1983 vigorou no Brasil um sistema, ainda existente em alguns países do mundo, chamado de dominio público remunerado, ou domínio público (...) Desapareceu em virtude de forte pressão da industria editorial e de difusão, inconformada com esse pagamento. (Eliane Y Abrão) Entre 1973 e 1983 vigorou no Brasil um sistema, ainda existente em alguns países do mundo, chamado de dominio público remunerado, ou domínio público (...) Desapareceu em virtude de forte pressão da industria editorial e de difusão, inconformada com esse pagamento. (Eliane Y Abrão)

26 La transformación creativa

27 “However, because any work inevitably builds on previous works, some to a greater extent than others, providing too large a monopoly will actually hinder the development of new works by limiting future creators use of earlier works. Herein lies the fundamental tension in copyright law.” [1]. [1] Lydia Pallas Loren, Redefining the Market Failure Approach to Fair Use in an Era of Copyright Permission Systems, the Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Volume 5 Fall 1997, No. 1

28 La transformación creativa Tribunal Constitucional Alemão - Germania 3 - BVerfGE 825/98 from 29.06.2000. EL caso de la obra de Henrich Müller, que usava como medio de expressión literária extensos periodos de Bertold Brecht On the one hand, there is the author who needs to be protected from unauthorized exploitation of his work. On the other, there is the interest of other authors to create and discuss art in a free environment sheltered from encroachments in terms of content or limited by the threat of financial repercussions.

29 La transformación creativa Concerning this balance, the [Constitutional] Court held that a negligible encroachment in the rights of the copy right holder without the existence of a danger of considerable economic disadvantages, do not outweigh the interests of the public to make (unauthorized) use of copy right protected work in order to discuss art in a free environment. Markus Schneider, The Balance Of Interests And Intellectual Property Laws – The European Approach, memorando, março de 2002.

30 La transformación creativa Copyright, Fair Use and Transformative Critical Appropriation, David Lange & Jennifer Lange Anderson There is no question of enjoining the transformative critical appropriation, and no question of punishment, either, for the very idea of punishment is unwarranted; and this is so though harm from the appropriation is possible, even likely, even to be presupposed. Suppression and damages do not sensibly figure in this scenario, then, and cannot sensibly be required. But there may still be reason in some cases to contemplate some provision for sharing with the proprietor of rights in the antecedent work an equitable portion of such profits, if any, as may be reaped from an appropriation.

31 La transformación creativa Copyright, Fair Use and Transformative Critical Appropriation, David Lange & Jennifer Lange Anderson There is no question of enjoining the transformative critical appropriation, and no question of punishment, either, for the very idea of punishment is unwarranted; and this is so though harm from the appropriation is possible, even likely, even to be presupposed. Suppression and damages do not sensibly figure in this scenario, then, and cannot sensibly be required. But there may still be reason in some cases to contemplate some provision for sharing with the proprietor of rights in the antecedent work an equitable portion of such profits, if any, as may be reaped from an appropriation.

32 La relación entre el domiínio público y la transformación creativa o criación derivada Se a finalidade do dereito autoral é a de devolver à coletividade o uso e gozo da obra, não se admite seja esse uso obstado pelo Estado, se não quanto à primeira forma de publicação da obra. Sob pena de grave cerceamento à liberdade de expressão, as transformações da obra original, respeitado o devido crédito, não podem ser consideradas violações à integridade dela. (Eliane Y Abrão) Se a finalidade do dereito autoral é a de devolver à coletividade o uso e gozo da obra, não se admite seja esse uso obstado pelo Estado, se não quanto à primeira forma de publicação da obra. Sob pena de grave cerceamento à liberdade de expressão, as transformações da obra original, respeitado o devido crédito, não podem ser consideradas violações à integridade dela. (Eliane Y Abrão)

33 Liberdad de expressión y información

34 Through the Looking Glass: Alice and the Constitutional Foundations of the Public Domain, Yochai Benkler, 2001 Copyright law is defined by constant tensions between exclusive private rights on the one hand and the freedom to read and express oneself as one wishes on the other hand. As a matter of economics, copyright represents a tension between the advantages of market- based production of information and cultural goods on the one hand and the intrinsic limitations of property rights as institutional solutions to the public goods problem of information production on the other hand.

35 Liberdad de expressión y información Thomas Jefferson: That ideas should freely spread from one to another over the globe, for the moral and mutual instruction of man, and improvement of his condition, seems to have been peculiarly and benevolently designed by nature, when she made them, like fire, expansible over all space, without lessening their density in any point, and like the air in which we breathe, move, and have our physical being, incapable of confinement or exclusive appropriation.

36 Liberdad de expressión y información ELDRED et al. v. ASHCROFT, January 15, 2003 The Copyright Clause and First Amendment were adopted close in time. This proximity indicates that, in the Framers' view, copyright's limited monopolies are compatible with free speech principles. Indeed, copyright's purpose is to promote the creation and publication of free expression. As Harper & Row observed: "[T]he Framers intended copyright itself to be the engine of free expression. By establishing a marketable right to the use of one's expression, copyright supplies the economic incentive to create and disseminate ideas."

37 Liberdad de expressión y información In addition to spurring the creation and publication of new expression, copyright law contains built-in First Amendment accommodations. See id., at 560. First, it distinguishes between ideas and expression and makes only the latter eligible for copyright protection. Specifically, 17 U. S. C. §102(b) provides: "In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work." (...). Due to this distinction, every idea, theory, and fact in a copyrighted work becomes instantly available for public exploitation at the moment of publication

38 Acesso a la Cultura

39 Acesso a la Cultura - Educación Tribunal Constitucional Alemão no caso Schulbuchprivileg (BverfGE 31, 229 de 07.07.1971): El equilibrio entre el derecho de propiedad del autor, e las disposiciones del a ley autoral alemana que permiten que las escuelas copien obras para fines didácticos sin la autorización del autor, y sin pagamiento de los royalties EL interés del público en lo acesso libre a los bienes culturales justifica que se pueda usar las obras sin acuerdo del autor para uso en las iglesias y escuelas, pero no justifica que el autor deba hacer su trabajo disponible para tales fines sin remuneración (§ 46 UrhG).

40 Acesso a la Cultura - Educación Licença compulsória Autoral de la convención de Berna Article II Limitations on the Right of Translation: (1) Any country which has declared that it will avail itself of the faculty provided for in this Article shall be entitled, so far as works published in printed or analogous forms of reproduction are concerned, to substitute for the exclusive right of translation provided for in Article 8 a system of non- exclusive and non-transferable licenses, granted by the competent authority under the following conditions and subject to Article IV. Article III Limitation on the Right of Reproduction (1) Any country which has declared that it will avail itself of the faculty provided for in this Article shall be entitled to substitute for the exclusive right of reproduction provided for in Article 9 a system of non-exclusive and non-transferable licenses, granted by the competent authority under the following conditions and subject to Article IV.(

41 Acesso à Cultura - Educación Artículo 38. Es lícito, sin remunerar u obtener autorización del autor, reproducir en obras de carácter cultural, científico o didáctico, fragmentos de obras ajenas protegidas, siempre que se mencionen su fuente, título y autor. Artículo 41. Las lecciones dictadas en universidades, colegios y escuelas, podrán ser anotadas o recogidas en cualquier forma por aquellos a quienes van dirigidas; pero no podrán ser publicadas, total o parcialmente, sin autorización de sus autores.

42 Acesso a la Cultura – la especificidad de la arte TRADING GOLD FOR DROSS, WENDY J. GORDON As the preceding section of the Article makes clear, this cost is not solely monetary. For both audiences and creators, the cost is one of experience. Audiences have less access to their culture if monopoly keeps the price of copies high, and term extension will also make it harder for young authors to make new works— particularly works that reshape the cultural reality the authors themselves have experienced. The works foregone may be commercial and trivial, or heartfelt and culturally crucial: the “social cost” of copyright extension includes both.

43 Acesso a la Cultura – la especificidad de la arte Roman Jakobson, Huit questions de po étique, p.63. Referencial Emotiva ------ Poética ------ Conativa FáticaMetalingüística

44 Acesso a la Cultura – la especificidad de la arte BONNEMASOU, Vera. A arte como linguagem. A Fonte - revista de arte, Curitiba, maio, 2003. Segundo Jakobson, “na función referencial, o signo entretêm, com o objeto designado, uma ligación interna mínima e, por conseguinte, o signo tem, nele mesmo, uma importância mínima.” No signo poético, é o inverso o que ocorre; o seu interesse está centrado em si próprio, seu objeto não possui uma importância relevante.

45 Acesso a la Cultura – la especificidad de la arte Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization Humanity faces a global crisis in the governance of knowledge, technology and culture. The crisis is manifest in many ways. ● Morally repugnant inequality of access to education, knowledge and technology undermines development and social cohesion; ● Authors, artists and inventors face mounting barriers to follow-on innovation; ● Concentrated ownership and control of knowledge, technology, biological resources and culture harm development, diversity and democratic institutions;

46 Acesso a la Cultura – la especificidad de la arte ● Technological measures designed to enforce intellectual property rights in digital environments threaten core exceptions in copyright laws for disabled persons, libraries, educators, authors and consumers, and undermine privacy and freedom; ● Key mechanisms to compensate and support creative individuals and communities are unfair to both creative persons and consumers; ● Private interests misappropriate social and public goods, and lock up the public domain. Alternative compensation systems have been proposed to expand access and interest in cultural works, while providing both artists and consumers with efficient and fair systems for compensation. There is renewed interest in compensatory liability rules, innovation prizes, or competitive intermediators, as models for economic incentives for science and technology that can facilitate sequential follow-on innovation and avoid monopolist abuses.

47 Por que esa protección tiene de ser por medio de un derecho exclusivo?

48 Cual es la relación entre el dominio público y la proteción? “For the sake of the good we must submit to the evil,” said Lord Macaulay of copyright, “But the evil ought not to last a day longer than is necessary for the purpose of securing the good.” Thomas Macaulay, Speech Before the House of Commons (Feb. 5, 1841), in 8 THE WORKS OF LORD MACAULAY 203-04 (Lady Trevelyan ed., 1906)

49 Los efectos pró- mercado del domínio público Merges, Robert P., "A New Dynamism in the Public Domain". University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 71, pp. 183-203, 2004 Merges, Robert P., "A New Dynamism in the Public Domain". University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 71, pp. 183-203, 2004 Firms and individuals are increasingly injecting information into the public domain with the explicit goal of preempting or undermining the potential property rights of economic adversaries. Firms and individuals are increasingly injecting information into the public domain with the explicit goal of preempting or undermining the potential property rights of economic adversaries. Biotechnology firms invest millions of dollars in public domain gene sequence databases, to prevent hold-ups by firms with patents on short gene sequences. Major software firms fight entrenched rivals by investing millions of dollars, contributing to open source operating systems. Biotechnology firms invest millions of dollars in public domain gene sequence databases, to prevent hold-ups by firms with patents on short gene sequences. Major software firms fight entrenched rivals by investing millions of dollars, contributing to open source operating systems. In both cases, property-preempting investments (PPI's) are made to offset the effects of competitors' property rights. Individuals and nonprofits are joining in too, with initiatives such as the Creative Commons project. In both cases, property-preempting investments (PPI's) are made to offset the effects of competitors' property rights. Individuals and nonprofits are joining in too, with initiatives such as the Creative Commons project.

50 Las ilusiones del dominio públlico Chander, Anupam and Sunder, Madhavi, "The Romance of the Public Domain". California Law Review, Vol. 92, 2004 Chander, Anupam and Sunder, Madhavi, "The Romance of the Public Domain". California Law Review, Vol. 92, 2004 The public domain is now the cause célèbre among progressive intellectual property and cyber-law scholars, who extol the public domain as necessary for sustaining innovation. But scholars obscure the distributional consequences of the commons. They presume a landscape where every person can reap the riches found in the commons. The public domain is now the cause célèbre among progressive intellectual property and cyber-law scholars, who extol the public domain as necessary for sustaining innovation. But scholars obscure the distributional consequences of the commons. They presume a landscape where every person can reap the riches found in the commons. This is the romance of the commons - the belief that because a resource is open to all by force of law, it will indeed be equally exploited by all. But in practice, differing circumstances - including knowledge, wealth, power, access, and ability - render some better able than others to exploit a commons. This is the romance of the commons - the belief that because a resource is open to all by force of law, it will indeed be equally exploited by all. But in practice, differing circumstances - including knowledge, wealth, power, access, and ability - render some better able than others to exploit a commons.