1 EECS 473 Advanced Embedded SystemsLecture 11ish: Power review & Switching power supplies A number of slides taken from UT-Austin’s EE462L power electronics class. -- very useful!

2 Random stuffs Project Office hours shift tomorrow (and break)Has everyone signed up for the Expo? Ford is the sponsor Office hours shift tomorrow (and break) Friday 9-10:30am (instead of 10:30-12) Will hold hours on Tuesday from 3-4:30 different time than normal, usually 470 only this is 473 only Today’s office hours are going to get slammed by 470 students (they have an exam today) HW1 is due on

3 Group status No team status today Will pick up after break.

4 What are DC converters? DC converters convert one DC voltage level to another. Very commonly on PCBs Often have USB or battery power But might need 1.8V, 3.3V, 5V, 12V and -12V all on the same board. On-PCB converters allow us to do that Images from

5 Different types of DC convertersLinear converters Switching converters Simpler to design Low-noise output for noise-sensitive applications Can only drop voltage And in fact must drop it by some minimum amount The larger the voltage drop the less power efficient the converter is Can be significantly more complex to design Worth avoiding for this class unless you have to do it. Can drop voltage or increase voltage “buck” and “boost” respectively Generally very power efficient 75% to 98% is normal

6 Characteristics of DC ConvertersTo better understand how to pick a converter we will go over the following characteristics seen in all DC converters Power wasted (as heat) Quiescent current, 𝐼 𝑄 The leakage current that occurs regardless of operation. Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) The ability to reject output noise at different frequency External capacitors and equivalent series resistance(ESR) Output noise filter that helps keeping the signal clean These characteristics are what people generally look for when selecting converters, but they’re not by any means the only characteristics that matter.

7 1. Power Wasted (as Heat) Linear converters waste power = (Vin– Vout)*Iload Example 12 V battery supplying 5V to each device Microcontroller that draws 5mA Ultrasonic rangefinder that draws 50mA Use LM7805 (linear regulator) to drop 12V to 5V Power wasted = (12V – 5V) * (0.050A A) = 0.385W Which is actually more than the power consumed! Is this acceptable? Hope so, because the alternative (switching converter) is a lot more difficult. Switchers generally waste a more-or-less fixed percent Say 15% or so, but as little as 3% is reasonable. is the source for this example. They go into more detail on their site.

8 2. Quiescent current, 𝐼 𝑄 For this device, IQ is huge. In general…All have quiescent current ( 𝐼 𝑄 ), which is different in each IC 𝐼 𝑄 is affected by the input and temperature the device is operating at. Will drain battery so choose carefully when picking converters! For this device, IQ is huge. Designed to move 1A. LM7805 𝑰 𝑸 during operation Diagrams from

9 3. Caps and ESR. Noise Capacitors!Each converter requires at least a 𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡 and sometimes a 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 to reduce noise in the system Will be specified in datasheets Capacitors size generally needed from smallest to largest: General linear converters -> LDOs -> switching converters min 22𝝁𝑭 min 22𝝁𝑭 Linear LM7805 LDO LM2940 Diagrams from and

10 3. Caps and ESR. Capacitors aren’t the only thing that will determine stability Sometime an operation demands higher 𝐼 𝑜 and leaves the safe-operating-area (SOA) causing instability as well So in addition to the capacitors, equivalent series resistance (ESR) comes into play Like everything else, the capacitor and its ESR will be specified in each IC’s datasheet There’s also more than just ESR that affects the stability as well for varied 𝐼 𝑜 and is discussed more in the link below

11 3. Caps and ESR So let’s take a look at an example of stability/instability with a changing 𝐼 𝑜 Note the amount of noise in the top waveform ( 𝑉 𝑜 ) as 𝐼 𝑜 changes with the presence of ESR Load transient with 𝟐.𝟐𝝁𝑭 ceramic capacitor Load transient with 𝟐.𝟐𝝁𝑭 ceramic capacitor and 𝟏𝛀 ESR

12 4. Input Noise PSRR indicates how well the supply deals with input noise. Recall we rely on the VRM (voltage regulation module) to keep noise down at low frequencies. We don’t want noise on the output You can determine how well a linear converter handle noise by its PSRR PSRR is used to describe the amount of noise rejected by a particular device What does PSRR mean for noise rejection? Take and 1V input, so 1𝑉∗ 10 − =.01=10𝑚𝑉 Meaning for every 1V there may be 10𝑚𝑉 superimposed on the output 10KHz is 1𝑉∗ 10 − ~ =0.32 𝑚𝑉, so 3% of the noise at 100KHz! PSSR performance is crucial for noise sensitive operation if you’ve got a noisy source Commonly switching supply followed by an LDO. PSRR is the signal to noise ratio on the output and noise could be white noise or anything else Typical PSRR profile for an LDO, 100kHz Graph from digikey

13 Quick look at the optionsLinear converter LDO Switching converter Buck Boost Buck-Boost

14 Linear converter One can think of a linear converter as a “smart” voltage divider. If we were using a very small amount of current, that would work. But hugely wasteful. Instead, we want the top resistor to vary with the load. As load draws more current, R1 drops resistance to keep voltage constant. Figures on this slide and the next taken from which is a great app-note.

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16 Linear Converters So… In general linear converters:LM7805 Linear Voltage Regulator Schematic So… In general linear converters: Act like a variable resistor Drop voltage by heat dissipation through the network of resistors Often have a fairly high minimum voltage drop. If you want to drop less, need a specific type of linear converters “low-drop out” or LDO All this fits in the IC! Diagrams from

17 Linear Converters - LDOWhat are low-dropout regulators(LDO)? LDOs are more complex linear regulators, using a transistor and error amplifier for negative feedback Larger capacitor is now needed Inherently, the capacitors will have equivalent series resistance that will also contribute to noise reduction. Also implemented as ICs like the other linear regulators LP5900 Generic LDO schematic

18 Voltage converters/regulators: Review LinearDrops voltage Heat waste > (Vin-Vout)/Vin That’s a lot if we are dropping much voltage Has minimum drop Uses current even if no load (quiescent current) Often needs an output (and maybe input) cap. LDO – low dropout is main variation. Minimum drop is often very small (though can vary by current draw…) Generally needs larger caps. Can have larger quiescent current Depends on if “resistor” is BJT or FET, FET more common these days.

19 Stability The opamp adjusts the effective resistance of the transistor to control the voltage. Clearly we’ve got a control loop and there is delay in that loop. That means that if the load (or source…) is varying at a certain frequencies, we could get positive feedback. The output (and sometimes input) cap can filter out those frequencies. An MOSFET LDO. provides a very nice, detailed overview with Bode plots etc., though it is a bit dated.

20 Is stability a real issue for linear regulators?Well yes. But these days, the requirements are pretty lax. The LT3007 wants a 2.2μF ceramic cap at the output and maybe a ~1 μF input cap. Needs moderately low ESR. Data sheet expresses concerns about cheap ceramic caps. Older linear regulators had a lot more restrictions Often required some additional ESR, but not too much. Older and cheaper devices might have some pretty significant (and sometimes costly) needs. Just be aware that in the early 2000s this was a pretty big issue.

21 Switching Converters Once you leave the realms of linear converters it gets more complex. Introducing common switching converters! All include a diode, transistor, inductor and a capacitor Converters General Topology Application Buck Drop voltage Boost Increase voltage Buck-boost(inverting) Increase or decrease voltage and inverse polarity Table from

22 Functionality – Switching ConvertersCommon switching converters Converters now include a transistor and diode used for switching and an inductor as energy storage. In general, a switching converters works by controlling the frequency and duty cycle that the transistor is operating at Similar to linear converters, most of the work is already done. Only have to pick IC with the right parameter and follow the datasheets given for appropriate inductors and capacitors. Size of inductor in relation to the rest of the component Example switching regulator from

23 Functionality – Switching ConvertersCommon switching converters Aside from the noble goal of making circuit analysis more complex () both the inductor and capacitor play important roles in switching converters. Capacitor Used to store energy due to the voltage applied thus maintaining a constant voltage Generally selected to limit 𝑉 𝑜 ripple to the correct specification Inductors Similar to the capacitor, but an inductor is used to store energy due to current flow. This in turn maintains a constant current or is used to limit the rate of change of current flow. This will also determine the peak to peak current in the circuit which affects the transistor, diode and the “mode” the converter will operate at.

24 Functionality – Buck Common switching convertersLet’s start with the buck converter Note the drive circuit, this is what the IC is For simplicity’s sake let’s disregard 𝑅 𝐿 and 𝑅 𝐶 , the internal resistance of the inductor and capacitor It looks pretty complex, so let’s try to understand why we need each component!

25 Switching – lossless conversion of 39V to average 13VSwitch open Stereo voltage 39 Switch closed DT T Rstereo + 39Vdc – Switch state, Stereo voltage Closed, 39Vdc Open, 0Vdc If the duty cycle D of the switch is 0.33, then the average voltage to the expensive car stereo is 39 ● 0.33 = 13Vdc. This is lossless conversion, but will it work?

26 Convert 39Vdc to 13Vdc, cont. + 39Vdc – C Rstereo L + 39Vdc – CTry adding a large C in parallel with the load to control ripple. But if the C has 13Vdc, then when the switch closes, the source current spikes to a huge value and burns out the switch. Rstereo + 39Vdc – C L Try adding an L to prevent the huge current spike. But now, if the L has current when the switch attempts to open, the inductor’s current momentum and resulting Ldi/dt burns out the switch. lossless Rstereo + 39Vdc – C L A DC-DC Buck Converter By adding a “free wheeling” diode, the switch can open and the inductor current can continue to flow. With high-frequency switching, the load voltage ripple can be reduced to a small value.

27 Functionality – Buck Common switching converters - buckDuring operation, the buck converter functions differently depending on the switch On state Current flows through the transistor but reverse bias prevents current flow through the diode Inductor begins to charge and a smaller current becomes 𝐼 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Off state Switch opens and the inductor starts discharging as the only power source This on-off state will determine the “mode” the converter operate in Buck: switch on Buck: switch off Figures from Wikipedia

28 Capacitors and InductorsIn capacitors: The voltage cannot change instantaneously Capacitors tend to keep the voltage constant (voltage “inertia”). An ideal capacitor with infinite capacitance acts as a constant voltage source. Thus, a capacitor cannot be connected in parallel with a voltage source or a switch (otherwise KVL would be violated, i.e. there will be a short-circuit) In inductors: The current cannot change instantaneously Inductors tend to keep the current constant (current “inertia”). An ideal inductor with infinite inductance acts as a constant current source. Thus, an inductor cannot be connected in series with a current source or a switch (otherwise KCL would be violated)

29 Functionality – Switching ConvertersCommon switching converters In switching converters, load current and voltage is largely determined by the operation of transistor switching The duty cycle of the switching will determine the mode each converter operate at various loads Continuous Mode The inductor current will never fall to zero when the switch is off Smaller current peak during operation Discontinuous Mode Inductor current will reach zero before the end of the full duty cycle Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the switching converters. In generally it’s how they change the frequency response. D is the duty cycle Figure from Wikipedia

30 Functionality – Buck Common switching converters Continuous modeDiscontinuous mode Add cite Using buck converter as an example, you can see the pulses with a certain 𝑇 𝑜𝑛 / 𝑇 𝑂𝐹𝐹 . This is the duty cycle of the transistor switching When the transistor is on it also creates a reverse bias voltage ( 𝑉 𝐶−𝑃 ) across the diode.

31 Functionality – Buck Common switching converters Continuous modeDiscontinuous mode As the switch is on there is current flow 𝐼 𝑄 through the transistor Current is a ramp because of the inductor High 𝐼 𝑄 peak also creates more stress on the transistor

32 Functionality – Buck Common switching converters Continuous modeDiscontinuous mode During the off time there is now forward bias current flowing through the diode from inductor discharging Inductor is discharging so the current starts to ramp down

33 Functionality – Buck Common switching converters Continuous modeDiscontinuous mode The output now has a ripple to it and not desirable for controlling the converter Instead of 𝐼 𝑜 = 𝐼 𝐿 , I o = I L avg , so when the feedback happens the control can read a constant value From the feedback the switching duty cycle is changed to keep the converter in a particular state.

34 Functionality – Buck Common switching converters Continuous modeDiscontinuous mode For buck converters we generally want to operate at continuous mode because 𝑉 𝑜 only depends on the duty cycle which makes it easier to control There are many published paper that cover the subject, a good one is

35 Examine the inductor currentSwitch closed, Switch open, From geometry, Iavg = Iout is halfway between Imax and Imin iL Imax Iavg = Iout ΔI Periodic – finishes a period where it started Imin DT (1 − D)T T

36 Effect of raising and lowering Iout while holding Vin, Vout, f, and L constantRaise Iout ΔI ΔI Lower Iout ΔI is unchanged Lowering Iout moves the circuit toward discontinuous operation

37 Effect of raising and lowering f while holding Vin, Vout, Iout, and L constantLower f Raise f Slopes of iL are unchanged Lowering f increases ΔI and moves the circuit toward discontinuous operation

38 Effect of raising and lowering L while holding Vin, Vout, Iout and f constantLower L Raise L Lowering L increases ΔI and moves the circuit toward discontinuous operation

39 Functionality – Switching Converters (again)Common switching converters In switching converters, load current and voltage is largely determined by the operation of transistor switching The duty cycle of the switching will determine the mode each converter operate at various loads Continuous Mode The inductor current will never fall to zero when the switch is off Smaller current peak during operation Discontinuous Mode Inductor current will reach zero before the end of the full duty cycle Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the switching converters. In generally it’s how they change the frequency response. D is the duty cycle Figure from Wikipedia

40 Net effect—avoiding discontinuous modeLower load current, lower inductance and lower switching frequency move us toward discontinuous mode. There are pros and cons to both modes, but one real issue is that switching between them can cause ringing on the inductor’s output. (See UT slides for why, has to do with parasitic cap in transistor and diode.

41 Boost (done a bit more quickly)

42 Buck converter Boost converter i + v – I i + V V C i – i + v – I i + VL + v – I i out Buck converter in + V V in C out i C – i L + v – I out Boost converter i in + V V in C out i C –

43 This is a much more unforgiving circuit than the buck converter! Boost converter + v L – i i I i L D out in L + V V in C out i C – This is a much more unforgiving circuit than the buck converter If the MOSFET gate driver sticks in the “on” position, then there is a short circuit through the MOSFET – blow MOSFET! If the load is disconnected during operation, so that Iout = 0, then L continues to push power to the right and very quickly charges C up to a high value (250V) – blow diode and MOSFET! Before applying power be sure that a load is solidly connected

44 Functionality – Boost On state Off stateCurrent flows through the transistor(least resistance) making the diode reverse bias and no 𝐼 𝐷 Inductor is charged in the process Off state The energy discharged by the inductor is superimposed to the input, generating a higher output Generic boost schematic Boost: on state Schematics from Boost: off state

45 Functionality – Switching ConvertersCommon switching converters - Boost Continuous mode Discontinuous mode From the timing diagram you can see this is very similar to the buck timing diagram with a difference in that 𝑉 𝑖 only affects 𝑉 𝑜 directly when the switch is off Similar to buck, in continuous mode the output is control by the duty cycle. But unfortunately, boost favor discontinuous mode, in continuous mode there is a complex second order characteristic in noise. Discontinuous mode removes the inductance noise, producing simpler response to compensate and control Schematics from

46 Functionality – Switching ConvertersCommon switching converters Buck-boost(inverting) The baby of buck and boost… On state Diode is reverse biased and the inductor is charged but input and output is isolated from each other Creates more stress on the diode! 𝑉 𝑜 is now the charged 𝑉 𝑐 from off state but different polarity Off state Inductor voltage reverses, passing energy to the capacitor and load through forward biased diode Due to the characteristics of boost, buck-boost suffers the same problem. Therefore a discontinuous mode is favored Generic buck- boost schematic Buck-boost: on state Buck-boost: off state Schematics from

47 Functionality – Switching ConvertersTo give you a better idea of how duty cycle affect the output of each converter in continuous mode refer to the table below Each duty cycle equation is equal to the ratio of 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 In discontinuous mode these equations are no longer true, but we will not discuss them here and they can also be found online More information on each of the switching converter can be found at Converters Duty cycle Buck 1 𝐷 Boost 1 1−𝐷 Buck-boost(inverting) 𝐷 1−𝐷

48 Picking converters Hopefully at this point you can start to see how much more complicated a switching converter is relative to a linear converter Every change made to the capacitor, inductor, transistor or diode will have an significant effect in not only the efficiency of each converter but also the life and way they operate Fortunately it won’t be the end of the world if you decide to use switching converters Using mic2168a, a controller for buck converter, as example. We can see not only do they provide information on the controller but also the external components needed for proper functionality (9pages!). ON semiconductor also provide a detailed published paper on both linear and switching regulator, covering the theory and design consideration needed.

49 Picking converters For those who aren’t as interested in all the technical details behind all this can refer to TI’s power management portal. You can just enter the parameters and TI will come up with recommendation Other companies also offer similar things so you’re not stuck with only TI Try Micrel, Freescale or other brands as needed.

50 Efficiency of switchersIt’s going to vary a lot. Depends on the converter, the output current, etc. Graph on the right is of a TPS5420 under reasonable conditions. Typically has only 18μA current when you shut it down (needs a control pin) TPS5420

51 Stability TPS5420

52 More stability