1 ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUNDPLANT NUTRITION Dr. Péter Csathó

2 ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND PLANT NUTRITION  1. History of agriculture and soil fertility 2. Basic principles and methods of soil tests (30 slides) 3. Principles and methods of plant analysis 4. Types of Plant Nutrition Experiments 5. Principles and method of nutrient balance 6. Plant nutrition and environmental aspects of soil pH and lime status 7. Assessing of organic farming from the aspect of sustainable plant nutrition 8. The environmental aspects of plant nutrition 9. Heavy metal load of agricultural production related to plants nutrition 10. The basics of environmentally sound plant nutrition advisory system : Evaluation of the database of Hungarian long-term field NPK fertilization exeriments 11. The structure of environmentally sound plant nutrition advisory system 12. Comparative evaluation of the environmentally sound plant nutrition advisory system, and its application in case of some farms

3 4. Types of Plant Nutrition Experiments KÖRNYEZETKÍMÉLŐ NÖVÉNYTÁPLÁLÁS

4 Types of Plant Nutrition ExperimentsHydroponic experiments Pot experiments Micro plots experiments Lysimeter experiments Field trials 4. Types of Plant Nutrition Experiments

5 The principles and methods of hydroponic experiments4. Növénytáplálási kísérletek típusai

6 Hydroponic experiments Their beginning were at the second half of the 1880s By then the plants essential nutrients were clarified. The source of the elements are water, air and soil. The main constituent of living plants is water. 9/10 of the dry matter is made up of C (from the air), O (from the air and water), and H (from water). The remaining 1/10 of the dry matter is made up of other macro, meso and micro-elements.  The amount of these elements often limits the crop yield. Sprengel (1926) and Liebig (1840) drew attention to this fact. Though Liebig has designated air as basic N source while biological N bond was not known at that time Ehelyett ezt írnám, hogy nem tudták, hogy csak nitrát és ammónium ion formájában tudja felvenni általában a növény a N-t. (it was not known that time, that usually plants can only take up N in a form of nitrate or ammonium –ion. 4.

7 Composition of some culture medium at the begining of the research (In: Hoagland és Arnon 1950) Sachs (1860) concentration Knop (1865) concentration Pfeffer (1900) concentration salt g/l salt g/l salt g/l KNO Ca(NO3)2 0.8 Ca(NO3)2 0.8 Ca3(PO4) KNO KNO3 0.2 MgSO KH2PO MgSO4 0.2 CaSO MgSO KH2PO4 0.2 NaCl FePO4 traces KCl 0.2 FeSO traces FeCl3 traces 4.

8 The nutrient solution experimenting background: Soil is a supplier of mineral salts   Experiment: the mineral salts are added independently of the soil. First attempts: Boussingault, in the early 1800s. He used quartz, sand, and coal as artificial soil and irrigated it with solutions of known composition. Since then, sand and other inert materials (eg. Perlite) have been used in the experiments. First Boussingault results confirmed experimentally the mineral theory, long before Liebig. 4.

9 After Szokolov (In: Hewitt 1960)The composition of nutrient solutions based on Hellriegel and Prjanyisnyikov After Szokolov (In: Hewitt 1960) Prjanyisnyikov conc. Hellriegel conc salt g/l salt g/l NH4NO Ca(NO3) KCl KCl CaHPO4.2H2O K2HPO MgSO MgSO CaSO4.2H2O FeCl3.6H2O 0.025 FeCl3.6H2O Hellriegel solution has pH 3.6, → 7 it savanyítást igényel? requires acidification. Prjanyisnyikov nutrient solution: physiologically neutral salts. The Solution pH is about 6.5, which increases slightly with plant growth 4.

10 Macroelements mg/litre Microelements mg/liter The composition of Hoagland-Snyder (1933) nutrient solution, which is perhaps the most widespread standard Macroelements mg/litre Microelements mg/liter Ca(NO3)2.4H2O H3BO KNO MnCl2.4H2O KH2PO ZnSO MgSO4.7H2O CuSO Összesen Na2MoO4.4H2O Microelements 6.1 FeCl Standard solution total   4.

11 Salt index of the most important nutrient salts(NaNO3=100) (Benton, 1983) NH4NO3 = 104 (NH4)2SO4 = 69 NH4H2PO4 = 34 NaNO3 = K2SO4 = (NH4)2HPO4= 29 Ca(NO3)2 = 52 CaSO4 = 8 CaHPO4 = 15 4.

12 Rating of the nutrient solutions according to the electrical conductivity data (Benton, 1983)EC Salt content Plant response Solutions mmhos/cm % below below missing not salty at sensitive species slightly salty unfavourable middle salty for salt tolerant plant very salty over over very few plants can tolerate extremely salty  4.

13 The effect of nutrient solutions with different concentration on the dry weight of winter wheat shoot (15 plants / treatment) (Sz. Nagy és Kádár, 1991) Treatment Standard N P K Ca Mg 0,8 1,1 2,0 3,9 2,4 1/10 1,9 3,8 3,1 4,6 4,5 1/3 2,9 4,1 4,7 4,4 5,1 1 2 4,3 4,9 5 3,6 4,0 10 2,6 3,5 20 1,2 3,7 1,4 1,6 50 0,4 2,8 0,7 0,6 100 0,3 Mean 2,5 2,85 3,3 3,85 s 1,7 Remark: The composition of standard Hoagland-Snyder solution is: N: 252; P: 37; K: 282; Ca: 240; Mg: 60 mg/L. 4.

14 Nutrient solution experiments They are suitable for the studying the importance of certain nutrients and for testing deficiency and toxic symptoms Nutrient uptake can be more clearly studied without the effect of the soil biological and chemical nature.   Here you can really control the plant feeding, since the soil does not compete for nutrients against the plant. The composition of the culture medium is monitored. . 4.

15 Principles and methods of pot experiments4.

16 It does not replace, but rather completes the field trials.4.

17 Classical pots applied by Wagner (1883) and Mitscherlich (1929, 1930) , which are used nowaday as well.  The pots are made of double-bottomed tin enamel, which can hold approx. 6 kg of sand .   Plates were placed under the pots to catch the water flow.   The sand is to be cleaned and sterilized. The sand was washed with hydrochloric acid and water followed by the sand annealing. Clean river sand is appropriate for exploratory experiments without washing. The ventilation of bottom is provided by a perforated glass tube , the water capacity is set to be around 80%. The experiment was carried out similarly with soil. . 4.

18 Relationship between the weight of the pot and the weight of yieldSalim (1986) found that when the weight of the soil increased in order to 1, 2, 5 kg / container, there was an % rise in the 60-day maize shoot, and 60-80% rise in the shoot of alfalfa and 75-day wheat. The weight of the roots, however, has not changed. 4.

19 Advantages : It is much more cheaper and feasible , than field trialsIt is more exact and reproducible; It is able to indicate the minimum order of nutrients and soil nutrient supply (exhaustive); - Finally, the soils in the pots represents the average soil sample and the sampling area at the same time, the two expressions are the same here.  

20 Pot experiments are suitable for examplePot experiments are suitable for example. testing a new fertilizer species . (a), (b)Relationships between the total and neutral NH4 citrate-soluble P content of soil and the mass of spring barley at tillering. (c), (d) relationship between the total and neutral NH4 citrate-soluble P content of the soil and the P uptake of the plant. Acidic sandy soil, Nyírlugos (al Csathó et., 2007)

21 Disadvantages: Results in practice can not be applied directlyDisadvantages: Results in practice can not be applied directly. Reason: Due to the limited soil / root ratio the use of the nutrients are stronger; Due to optimum water solubility the nutrients are provided in the soil better than on the field; - The fertilizer effects are much more pronounced, because of the optimum of other factors and the limited volume of soil. 4.

22 Changes in relative Cd content of plants in plot and field experiment treated with the same Cd doses. (GRÜN et al. 1987) Cd content of soils, mg/kg Relatíve Cd-content of plant, % * greenhouse Field Potato Rye edény bush, shoot straw seed 0,63 0,68 159 173 135 186 0,71 0,76 144 306 192 182 0,98 0,94 190 450 258 200 2,1 2,2 140 198 162 253 0,84 59 119 117 125 Megj: A Cd adagokat jó lenne még feltüntetni, a talaj és növény adatok kicsit egybefolynak. The Cd content of plants in the pot experiment is expressed as a percentage of the plant Cd content in the field experiment . Field Cd content in the plant = 100% Similar differences can be observed in the plant nutrient concentrations as well. 4.

23 Principles and methods of field micro plot experiments4.

24 It is a transition between the small-plot field experiments and pot experiments. Micro plots: 1-2 or a few m2 Small plots: m2 However, the conceptual difference between the two methods arises not from the size of the plots. 4.

25 In micro plot experiments there is manual tillage, seeding and crop care as well as in greenhouse experiments. However, the experiment is going on under natural conditions (humidity, temperature, light). This method can be suitable for example to examine the different forms of fertilizers or to do leaching tests, etc. The comparative analysis of numerous fertilizer types become fast and inexpensive requiring small areas.  Every year, tens of thousands of these tests have been carried out in the Soviet Union in the '30s, at the beginning of the development of the fertilizer industry (Prjanisnyikov 1945). 4.

26 In Hungary it is not widespread.4.

27 A The principles and methods of lysimeter experiments4.

28 There are even less "natural" conditions , than by micro plotsThere are even less "natural" conditions , than by micro plots. The lysimeter tubs are subsequently filled with soil, so the soil is not original, undisturbed (as in the greenhouse experiments) In the longer term, it may need a few years to the soil of lysimeters to gain "natural„ structure. 4.

29 Setting up lisimeter experiments4.

30 The aim of lysimeter experiments is to monitor nutrient and water flow, and to describe leaching quantitatively. From this aspect they can not be replaced, despite all their constraints.   The salts flow through the soil column with water into the collecting jars. The catch-pots are often placed on either side of an underground passage in the lysimetric shaft so that they are easily accessible and it results a convenient sampling. 4.

31 The lysimeter station requires constant care, and generally assume an irrigated experimentation. The continuous experimentation requires rather large manual labor and laboratory capacity, energy consumption, etc.   We have to mention the edge effect as its theoretical limitation, which may occur not only in plants, but also along the walls of the tub at the entire soil profile as a drainage. 4.

32 Principles and methods of small-plot trials4.

33 Ever since humans engaged in the cultivation of land, they carry out observations and collect data. During thousands of years empirical observation and experience was the source of the agronomic knowledge. To our knowledge, scientific research, in the modern sense did not exist until the mid-1700s. Agricultural research is institutionalized actually a century later, from the middle nineteenth century. Until the early 1800s, nor agricultural experiment stations, neither agricultural colleges in the modern sense with stringent requirements have been established. This is not contradicted by the fact that a landowner may set up their own vocational schools. (see e.g.. Georgicon Hungary.) 4.

34 Attempts without causal knowledge, which ignore the local conditions slowly solidified the right and generalizable knowledge. Progress was really frustratingly slow, cumbersome and fraught with failure, as it happened blindly. The story of progress, was the history of the errors as well. The thinkers of antiquity really systematized observation and accumulated a lot of useful knowledge. However, they have hardly any idea about experimental method. Therefore, authoritarian could develop, which caused great damages for thousands of years. Field trials are essential in the study of the soil fertilizer requirement and soil fertility assessment. The majority of the agrochemical and plant nutritional knowledge, relates to the soil-plant system, and they are connected to field trials. 4.

35 The classical works of agronomy and agro chemistry are often intertwined in field trials: Boussingault, Lawes and Gilbert, Kühn, Kristensen, Wagner, Engelhardt, Mendelejev, Prjanisnyikov, Cserháti, etc. The history, methodology and statistical evaluation of the field trials, can be followed in studies of such researchers as Lemmermann (1925), Mitscherlich (1929, 1930), Roemer (1930), Snedecor (1948), Cochran and Cox (1950), Fisher (1951) , Mudra (1952), Baule (1953), Scserba (1954), Bergmann (1958) and the like. 4.

36 De Saussure ( ) He experimentally proved the mechanism of respiration and photosynthesis. He demonstrated that carbon comes from the air while the plant ash and nitrogen originated from the soil. This knowledge has affected agriculture and soon it is started to use in agronomy. Ash analysis for example proved the fact that each element of the vegetable ingredients can be found in the humus. 4.

37 Boussingault ( ) He created the first experimental station in 1834 in the French Alsace.  He carefully planned his field experiments related to fertilization and crop rotation. In addition, he set up his own laboratory in his farm. He was the first, who proved that legumes can take up nitrogen from the air. He did not applied small plot experimental technique in the modern sense with replications. 4.

38 Still Boussingault can be considered as the father of the field experimentation because: - He linked field experiments with soil and plant testing and introduced the concept of nutrient balances. Thus he made the field experimentation become a scientific technique. - He conducted long-term investigations He recognized that the role of the time factor is very important in agronomic and soil fertility studies. Scientific results can be only drawn of many years of scientific studies. 4.

39 Liebig ( ) Although he did not carry out field trials, he had a decisive influence on their spread. He synthesized the early scientific results (chemistry, biology) at that time and the agricultural science became an applied science due to his work. Liebig’s work was such an important turning point in agriculture as the coming of Jesus in the Christian life - says Salmon and Hanson (1970). The novel views of Liebig (1840) sparked a heated debate. His followers as well as his opponents tried to prove experimentally their point of view. Liebig established laboratory and taught in Giessen, he drew attention to the importance of agricultural research. 4.

40 The Experimental Station in Rothamsted for example established in 1843 close to London on the estate of Lawes ( ). One of Liebig’s students, Gilbert ( ) conducted the experimental work . Among the nine long term experiments set between , eight experiments has been still going on in a more or less unchanged form as the "Rothamsted Classical Experiments." The Rothamsted Research Center today is also the Mecca of scientists in the field of agrochemistry , and it is a major source of soil fertility and agrochemical-knowledge. The experiments are set according to Boussingault in France , so they were not small plot repetition experiments yet. 4.

41 The world's oldest long-term fertilization experiments: the classic long-term experiments in Rothamsed, United Kingdom: Broadbalk: 1843-; Hoos Barley : 1852-; Alternate Wheat and Fallow: ; Exhaustion Land: 1856-; Park Grass: ; Classic fertilization experiments in Rothamsted. Left: Broadbalk, 1843-; right: Park Grass Experiment, 4.

42 12 years after the founding of the station Lawes and Gilbert drew the following important conclusions (Tisdale and Nelson 1966): 1. Economic plants need phosphorus and potassium, but the nutrient amounts in the plants’ ash is not equal the fertilizer requirement of the plants, as it was assumed by Liebig too. 1. A gazdasági növényeknek szükségük van foszforra és káliumra, de a növényi hamu összetétele nem kritériuma a növény által igényelt mennyiségnek, mint ahogy azt Liebig mechanikusan feltételezte. (Tehát a tápelem-igény és a trágya-igény nem ugyanaz.) (Itt a magyar szöveget pontatlannak érzem, ami a zárójelben van azt emelném ki, ez viszont nem ugyanaz, mint ami előtte le van írva így is fordítottam le inkább) 2. The atmospheric ammonia-N can not cover the non-leguminous plants N requirement, as it was assumed by Liebig. The legumes surplus N is derived from the air, as it was demonstrated by Bousssingault. (The mechanism was still not known, since the rhizomes and the activities of N-fixing bacteria were also unknown.) 3. The positive effect of fallowing is often due to the accumulation of N-compounds in the soil and the mineralization of humus substances. The theory of Liebig (PK) and Boussingault (N) is to be merged. 4. Soil fertility can be sustained applying merely fertilizers.

43 The US's oldest classical long term fertilization experimentThe US's oldest classical long term fertilization experiment. The Morrow Plots, Urbana, Illinois. Set: 1876. 4.

44 Rothamsted. 1843 (England). Grignon. 1875 (France). IllinoisRothamsted (England) Grignon (France) Illinois (USA) Halle (Germany) Askov (Denmark) Moszkva (Russian) 4.

45 Hungary's oldest long term fertilization experiment: The Westsik experiment of crop rotation in Nyíregyháza. Set: in 1929 4.

46 Megjegyzés: Ezt a japán ppt-ről vágtam be, de nem értem miért nem soil pH-t vagy acidity-t ír a soil reaction helyett a fordító

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49 The establishment of the first agricultural experiment stations: 1850s, 1880s. The set of trials is state responsibility. "Setting up such experiments with large numbers exceeds the power of individual. Consequently it is the state task to provide the possibility for adult males to devote their time and talents fully to the research of nature, contributing to the benefit of agriculture and the general well-being." (Thaer, ) 4.

50 Hungary: There is a well developed state network of research institutes with a single branch of agriculture. The Cserháti school Cserháti, S. Kosutány, T. (1887) The Principles of fertilization. Cserháti, S. (1900) General and special crop production. Cserháti was skeptical toward the field trials. Every year large parcel experiments were set on new locations - Heterogenity 4.

51 The 'Sigmond school The significance of soil analysisDevelopment of new P soil test. 1930s: National large plots fertilization experiment series, without repetition, with new location each year "wandering trials." There are few useful results. ‘Sigmond Elek ( ) 4.

52 The elder Várallyai-school Elder Várallyay György (1900-1954)The elder Várallyai-school The founder of modern domestic agrochemical experimentation school The first Hungarian small-plot field fertilization experiment series with several replications ( 1950, 1954.) Elder Várallyay György ( ) 4.

53 The evaluation of the effect of fertilizers Várallyay (1950)Soil type P-effect (%) K-effect (%) N-effect (%) Average H.É.A. Average H.É.A. Average Acidic bog Calcareous bog Acidic forest Acidic sand Calcareous sand Duna alluival chernozem loam On aveage Average = averages of types; H.É.A. Within type below the satisfactory nutrient supply 4.

54 The interpretation of soil test data according to Várallyay (1954),Number Appropriate supply mg/kg Incubation 20 mg/kg P Soil type of trials DL-P2O DL-K2O DL-soluble Average cereal row crop mg/kg Acidic forest Acidic sand Danube alluiva Calcareous sand Chernozem loam 4.

55 At the end of the '60s Hungarian long term fertilization experiments (OMTK) were set at 26 sites with the same methodology (Debreczeni and Debreczeniné, 1994). It provided great opportunity to study the characteristics of the various arable lands and to investigate the effect of the different soil properties and weather conditions on the utilization of fertilizers and the nutrient uptake. (magyarul is elég nehéz a mondat, ez inkább könyvbe illik ahol többször elolvassa az ember egymás után, Ezért ezt a hosszú mondatot tördeltem, egyszerűsítettem) Later these experiments could only proceed at 9 sites due to financial reasons. In these places, however, we have more than 30-year (40 éves is van már) data series. 4.

56 4. Types of Plant Nutrition ExperimentsThe effect of production site and the 27-year P fertilization on the P supplies indicated by AL-soluble P content of the soil, by the flowering corn leaf P concentration and by corn grain yield. OMTK experiments (Csathó, 2002) sites P level NH * IR BI KO KA PU KE HB MO texture loam loam loam clay loam clay loam clay loam clay loam clay loam Clay% pHKCI CaCO3% ny ny 21.0 y P supply indicated by the AL-soluble P content (based on 2002 Csathó) P0 gy * k Eng k gy-k j k kj j P1 kj ij kj ij k j t j ij P2 t t j t ij t t t t P3 t t j t ij t t t t P supply indicated by the leaf (based on Jones, 1967, and Kádár Elek, 1980, as amended) P0 Eng j k j k kj k k j P1 j ij j j kj j j j j P2 ij t j j k j j j j P3 t t ij j j j ij j j This was indicated by grain yield effects P P supply (Debreczeni and Dvoracsek, based on 1994) P0 gy* ij gy kj kj j k igy* j igy* = very weak; w = weak; k = moderate; j = good; ij = very good; t = P excess supply 4. Types of Plant Nutrition Experiments

57 4. Types of Plant Nutrition ExperimentsThe effect of production site and the 27-year K fertilization on the K supplies indicated by AL-soluble K content of the soil, by the flowering corn leaf K concentration and by corn grain yield. OMTK experiments (Csathó, 2002) sites Klevel NH * IR BI KO KA PU KE HB MO texture loam loam loam clay loam clay loam clay loam sandy loam clayloam loam Clay% K supply indicated by the AL-soluble K content (based on 1997 Csathó) K0 igy * igy-gy k kj kj gy-k Eng igy igy K1 j k j t kj t j ij igy K2 kj k-j k-j t kj kj j ij k K supply indicated by the leaf K concentration (Hostels and Kadar, 1980, tab) K0 igy ij k j ij j ** gy igy igy k K1 j kj j t k j t-ij kj kj K2 j ij t-ij kj t kj kj t-ij j kj K supply indicated by the grain yield (Debreczeni and Dvoracsek, based on 1994) K0 gy-k ij ij kj j j igy igy k igy = very poor; w = weak; k = moderate; j = good; ij = very good; t = s over-supply; ** precipitation Right before the sampling could leach K from leaf tissues 4. Types of Plant Nutrition Experiments

58 The advantages of field trials - It is the most natural method for the estimation of fertilizer requirements because the experiment is going on a fertile soil. - It takes into account such characteristics of the terroir, as the quality of the subsoil, soil biological activity, etc. These parameters are often not taken into consideration at the other methods ( E.g. soil extractions by chemical analysis) - It includes the soil-plant-climate factors as a complex system, and a variety of plant species can be tested; - It reflects for soil water balance (water storage capacity of soils); It requires no laboratory background, it can give direct on-site guidance for experienced farmers. The results of experiments, however, are true only to the affected area. Without a detailed soil and plant analysis, the experience can not be transferred, can not be generalized. They can be only applied under the same conditions. / Roemer (1930) Lemmermann (1930), Bergmann (1958 a, b) / 4.

59 4. Types of Plant Nutrition ExperimentsThe disadvantages of field trials - The question of fertilization can only be answered after the harvest . Strictly speaking, it can tell us what fertilizer doses would have been good to apply in the past. It can not say the fertilization doses for the following year; -Multi-annual results are needed, because of the one-year effects may be uncertain. The drawback of all field trials is the uncertain reproducibility; - The available amounts of soil nutrients (Mitscherlich kind of "b" value) can only be estimated if significant differences are measured in deficiency treatments; - In case of a soil with good nutrient supply we do not know how long the soil nutrient reserves provide nutrients for the high yields and when fertilizer effects can be expected. Nutrient excess can not be identified, only the deficit; - The results of the experiments are true only for that area. Without a detailed soil and plant testing the experiences can not be transferred, they can not be generalized . They are only true under the same conditions; - The results are related only to the test plant (plant species and even species); It is highly sensitive to the weather. The weather extremities such as freeze, subsequent frost damage, hail, drought can distort the results. Based / Roemer (1930) Lemmermann (1930), Bergmann (1958 a, b) / 4. Types of Plant Nutrition Experiments

60 The main types of field trials - Based on their duration (one year, multi-years, so-called "eternal" experiments.) Based on plot size (large, small and micro plots) Based on their composition (from simple farm experiments to complex experiments of basic research) Series of experiments with unified methodology, based on geography and soil science principles - Based on our purpose (examination of the response curve, comparing the new fertilizers etc.). 4.

61 4. Növénytáplálási kísérletek típusai4. Növénytáplálási kísérletek típusai