1 Gender inequality in learning achievement in primary educationWhat can TERCE tell us? Denisse Gelber, Ernesto Treviño, Pamela Inostroza

2 Background According to national and international standardized tests, male learners have significant advantages in mathematics and female learners have no less significant advantages in reading and writing. Low literacy skills among boys may increase the likelihood of grade repetition (retention) and early dropout and, as a result, lower male participation in higher education and reduced career opportunities. Low achievement in mathematics and science among girls may reduce their interest in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) careers (considered to offer greater opportunities for higher incomes).

3 Several factors influence gender inequality…Labor market participation and political representation Learner attitudes and self-confidence Gender stereotypes and beliefs Parental expectations Student, teacher and parents attitudes may be mutually reinforcing in promoting educational inequalities. Gender beliefs support stereotypes that female learners are more apt to do well in reading and writing and that male learners are more likely to succeed in mathematics and science

4 Research goals Identify and describe gender gaps based on the average score differences, the score distributions (variability) and representation in the ‘achievement levels’ developed by TERCE for each course and grade. Compare TERCE results with results from the Second Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study (SERCE), conducted in 2006, in order to identify trends and changes over time. Explore factors that may be associated with the evidenced gender gaps in educational performance, focusing on third and sixth grader achievement in mathematics, reading and science.

5 Methods Consideration of Plausible Values.Computation of standard errors. Adjustment of TERCE data. Recoding of variables of interest. Identification of associated factors based on Hierarchical Linear Models.

6 Gender achievement gaps in TERCE

7 Gender achievement gaps in TERCEBoys´ advantage in Math increases and generalizes in 6th grade. Girls´ advantage in Reading is consistent in 3rd and 6th grade. Girls´ advantage in Writing is consistent and generalized in 3rd and 6th grade. The advantage in Science is split by gender; female students score higher in half of the countries assessed and male students score higher in the other half.

8 Sólo se presentan diferencias estadísticamente significativas (P<=0

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12 SERCE-TERCE Trends

13 SERCE-TERCE Trends Boys´ advantage in Math decreased in 3rd grade, but increased in 6th grade. Girls´ advantage in Reading increased in 3rd grade, and remains more remarkable in 6th grade. Gender gaps in Science got reversed, revealing improvements in terms of equality.

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19 Associated factors with gender inequality in TERCEVariables consideradas en los HLM variaron en 3ro y 6to porque los cuestionarios son distintos. Se consideraron las siguientes variables: nivel socio-económico de la escuela, docente mujer, escuela rural, escuela pública urbana, estudiante niña, repetición, nivel socio-económico del estudiante, hábitos de lectura, tiempo dedicado al estudio, nivel educativo de la madre, expectativas educativas de los padres para sus hijos, la creencia de los padres de que las niñas tienen mayores habilidades en ciencias, y las prácticas docentes. Además se consideraron aquellas variables que se encontraban asociadas al puntaje.

20 Analyzed factors 3rd grade: 6th grade: School Student School: StudentSES Rural school Public, urban school Student Student is female Grade retention Time dedicated to study Mother´s education Parental educational expectations Parental supervision 6th grade: School: SES Rural school Public urban school Student Reading habits School climate Teacher practices Teacher perception of skills in Science by gender

21 Associated factors with gender inequality in TERCENone of the study variables in the adjusted models could directly explain the achievement gaps in all of the considered disciplines and school grades General trend: Female learner performance advantages were explained by the considered variables in the statistical models. Male learner performance advantage could not be similarly explained. It is highly likely that cultural practices, difficult to capture through quantitative studies, are behind the gender gaps in mathematics Variables consideradas en los HLM variaron en 3ro y 6to porque los cuestionarios son distintos. Se consideraron las siguientes variables: nivel socio-económico de la escuela, docente mujer, escuela rural, escuela pública urbana, estudiante niña, repetición, nivel socio-económico del estudiante, hábitos de lectura, tiempo dedicado al estudio, nivel educativo de la madre, expectativas educativas de los padres para sus hijos, la creencia de los padres de que las niñas tienen mayores habilidades en ciencias, y las prácticas docentes. Además se consideraron aquellas variables que se encontraban asociadas al puntaje.

22 Conclusions Based on the considered variablesBoys´ advantage in Math and Science could not be explained. Girls´ advantage in Reading and Science could be explained. Cultural practices may convey systematic, implicit and almost imperceptible messages that shape opportunities and expectations about the potential achievement of girls and boys in various disciplines.

23 Policy suggestions National and local governments should make gender inequality a priority issue in terms of public policy. A revision of the curriculum, textbooks and teaching materials is necessary in order to capture and eliminate gender bias. It is necessary to reformulate pre-service and in-service teacher training with a gender focus, concerned with providing equal opportunities to female and male learners, as well as tools to implement equal interactions in the daily classroom activities.

24 Thanks for your attention!

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