1 Influence and Social Policy Dr. Sandra ShawMSc Social Policy 2015
2 Aims To consider the concept of ‘influence’To explore the connections between influence and the policy process To look at different levels of influence, and agencies/organizations that might affect policy development
3 ‘Influence’ What might this mean?That some groups/organizations/communities have the power to influence the policy process – which also implies that others are less able to influence policy-making Thus, discussing influence, inevitably involves consideration of power
4 Regional Differences Scottish Parliament Welsh AssemblyNorthern Ireland Policy-making in a ‘devolved’ UK can lead to policy divergence or policy convergence Increases the range of ‘actors’ that participate in the policy-making process There will also be regional differences in terms of socio-cultural, geographic, economic and political histories International context – supranational organizations Means that policy-making is a complex process, and ‘unpicking’ influence is also complex
5 Historical past Policy decisions may be influenced by the past history of different societies – this includes social, economic, cultural, political and religious influences Understanding policy decisions in particular countries or regions can involve looking at past developments in policies, and understanding who has had power in society
6 Different Levels within the national policy-making processThe elected national (and devolved) government (democracies) The civil service (UK) Government appointed organizations Welfare state organizations, and professionals Voluntary sector (aka Third Sector) The Private Sector, e.g. Private providers of health and social welfare, or Pharmaceutical Industry The Public/Citizens/Consumers The Media – powerful influence in shaping agendas MNCs and national business sector can exert influence on policy-making, e.g. tobacco industry and food industry
7 The Big Mac Metaphor Hudson and Lowe (2004; 2009)Suggests ‘three layers or tiers of influence that shape the development and nature of the policy process’ (Hudson and Lowe, 2004: 246) These are the: macro-level; meso-level; micro-level Levels are not always easy to separate, but these authors suggest this is a useful way to consider policy-making
8 Political Ideologies Political ideologies are important in determining the shape of policies – so for example, in the UK there have been differences in the past between Conservatives, Labour, and Liberal approaches Opposing political ideologies that resonate with the public can be important for forcing issues on to the political and policy agenda, for example: Greens, or UKIP
9 Not Just Political IdeologiesIdeologies can change over time and are broader than political ideologies Societies change and governments and political parties have to respond to these changes In democratic societies, political parties have to persuade the electorate to vote for them, this means that their political ideology has to ‘capture’ or ‘reflect’ the public consciousness
10 Social Change Challenges Policy AgendaSocial changes can challenge dominate ideas Increased numbers of women working, including mothers in paid employment challenges ideas about a ‘woman’s place’ This challenges traditional ideologies around motherhood, families, and parenting that underpinned the post 2nd World War Welfare State here and in other developed nations
11 Social Change in Western SocietiesBriefly; increase in divorce/separation; decrease in marriage; increase in cohabitation; increase in births outside of marriage; same-sex partnerships and civil unions; women choosing to give birth later in life; increased longevity and the burden of ageing Governments have to adapt to these changes and put policies in place to deal with them – but what comes first? That is, social policies can create potential for social change
12 New Social Movements Social analysts refer to ‘new social movements’ – gender, race, disability, sexuality, which shift attitudes and values in societies Feminism challenged traditional views on women’s economic dependence on men, their role in society, and highlighted the welfare state’s dependence of women’s unpaid care work Developments around race/racism highlighted how the welfare state marginalized, excluded and discriminated against immigrant communities
13 New Social Movements The Disability movement challenged the traditional medical model and approach to health and social care of disabled people and discrimination against disabled people It challenged the power of professionals, and argued for more control of decisions on their care for disabled people, and greater independence
14 Pressure for change – Social MovementsThese new social movements challenged stereotypes and assumptions embedded in social policies Over time, governments in the UK – of differing political ideologies have had to deal with social changes and these challenges, and policies have had to adapt and change Today new policies have to take account of a broader agenda around Equality and Diversity
15 Is this reflected in political agendasAll political parties adapt and change, and content within party manifestos at the last election reflects this Political ideologies have also changed, and concepts such as ‘social justice’ and ‘fairness’ become part of these This does not mean that a party elected to power will put all promises into action
16 And . . . Within the UK (and other countries) inequalities based around gender/race/disability or other factors still exist, and progress may not be straightforward Traditional ideologies – around the family and gender, for example – can still exert powerful influence In many countries religious ideologies have a powerful influence on areas such as gender, sexuality, or disability, impacting on policies and practice
17 Global Policy - GovernanceThere is no global government, so when referring to policy-making at the global level the term ‘governance’ is used Governance is ‘more informal and diffuse and includes actors other than national governments’ Cockerham and Cockerham, 2010 quoted in Shaw, 2013:178) Cooperation, with less regulation and enforcement Complex: Held and McGrew (2007 quoted in Shaw 2013:178) state that it is a ‘multi-layered, multi-sectoral and multi-actor system’ Global social policies are important as they can also influence national policies
18 Role of Supranational OrganizationsEuropean Union – member states and accession states Social Policies increasingly influenced by decisions made in the European Union Early focus on economic areas around areas related to economic policy – employment, workers’ rights Expanding in to social policy issues including: gender; childcare; citizenship; immigration policy; even, health policy
19 Supranational Organizations contd.International organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations also influence global policies, and policies at the national level UN Convention on the Rights of the Child International agendas on Human Rights – effective? something to aspire to? UN Millennium Development Goals and progress Yeates (2008:16) on Extended Welfare Mix - see chart
20 Afford (2013) Discusses influence of international organizations on domestic child welfare policy and practice Refers to ‘soft 'mechanisms, such as awareness-raising, compiling statistical data and demonstration projects And ‘hard’ mechanisms, such as making law and financial intervention Reviews the area, and concludes: ‘child welfare policy and practice are increasingly subject to supranational policy this has important implications for those seeking to influence this field.’
21 Miller and Mooney (2010) Economy important, including global economyMobility of capital across borders – increases power of corporations Capital can leave – with consequences this entails ‘Exit option’ if national policies are not favourable Dominance of neoliberal economic orthodoxy ensures focus on policies to improve economic competitiveness and business climate (Swank, 2002 cited in Miller and Money, 2010) See Diagram on Spheres of Influence
22 Corporate Power and Social Policy (Farnsworth and Holden, 2006)Differentiate between three forms of corporate input into social policy Direct political engagement (networks; lobbying; funding think-tanks, research units etc.) Institutional participation (boards of hospitals, schools, government agencies and advisory committees) Direct provision or production of social welfare services – resulting in Trade in Services
23 Policy Transfer/TranslationThis refers to the way that countries will look to other nations for policies that might ‘fit’ Policies are transferred, or ideas about the way policies should be developed are transferred This is increasingly the case in a global society Though it is also the case that a policy that works in one context may not be as effective in another Governments do not always have/take time to research or evaluate ‘what works’, and policy decisions are not always based in evidence and can be rushed
24 Epistemic Communities and Research – what is the impact?Epistemic communities – or knowledge-generating communities, which includes academia, and research institutions across a wide range of areas and issues Impact and Research – a lot of emphasis on this within Social Policy academic community So, what is the point of research if governments do not listen Evidence-based practice
25 Role of evidence in social policyResearch can have a direct role in framing policy Evidence considered as part of a complex process where powerful vested interests have the most influence over policy, and can be used selectively to justify predetermined positions Do political parties, governments, and other vested interests look for research that justifies their agenda? Are research findings/reports suppressed?
26 Policy Changes Change can be incremental based upon a mix of influences Policy-makers draw upon available evidence, but policy change is often constrained by established structures and interests Complex and politicized process but evidence can have an important part to play, particularly if evidence fits with policy direction, and suggests practical action
27 Example of Public Health AgendaDifferent approaches reflect differences in political orientation, and what is seen as practical action to deal with problems Public health evidence fits with the political priorities of governments in power What is measured, and how it is presented is important in a politicized environment Increasing emphasis on behaviour and individual responsibility for health, as poor health choices cost the NHS
28 Social Constructionism and Social PolicySocial Constructionism argues that our behaviour and our choices are determined by the time and the culture we live in For example, sexuality is influenced by family socialization, religion and our culture, peer groups, legislation, representations of sexuality in art and literature and the media, and by social policies relating to sexuality And, views on sexuality change which leads to pressure for changes in policy and practice
29 Social Constructionism and Social ProblemsCertain issues or groups can be labelled or defined as a social problem When a problem or a problem group has been identified it comes on to the policy agenda Various influences – ideologies, media, crisis can push a problem higher up the agenda Finding solutions to social problems is part of the policy-making process
30 Media influences on Social PolicyMedia can have a powerful effect on highlight social problems and putting issues on to the policy agenda Does this reflect views of the public? Or can the media force policy agendas in a specific direction? Crises in dealing with problems, or in welfare services do force problems high up the agenda, and lead to changes in social policies
31 Crises in Social Policy – changing agendas and changing social policies and practiceOver a long period of time a series of cases relating to abuse in residential care – disabled, older people The same with regard to child deaths Sexual abuse of children in care Child Sexual Exploitation and trafficking - national and international Mental Health issues – those with problems presenting a threat? Lack of sufficient support for vulnerable people
32 Crises contd. Current crisis in social care (see Guardian Wednesday last week) Current crises in NHS (across the media last week) International issue: migration and immigration an international, regional and national problem Consider how these issues are forced on to the policy agenda, what role the media plays, different ‘voices’ and different interest, and the links to conflict/war and defence and security issues The social policy agenda therefore is constantly evolving, as is the subject of Social Policy
33 Economic Context The economic context is important in influencing social policy decisions So at times of economic recession – national or global – governments will make cuts to welfare spending Austerity politics and economics currently dominate in shaping social policies in the UK and other countries – Austerity is a dominate political and economic discourse Are there are alternative ideas?
34 Concluding Remarks This can only be an introduction to a complex areaAs noted, the policy-making process is complex and messy, and is not linear There are different levels Different ‘actors’, that is organizations, agencies and individuals are involved There may be policy communities, or groups that influence government decisions
35 Concluding Remarks The private sector may have a significant role in terms of influence There are government bodies like NICE that influence decisions that impact on users of healthcare The Public and citizens also have a role in terms of influencing policy So too does the media
36 Concluding Remarks contd.Transnational/Global organizations also important – WHO for example, in influencing health policy and public health decisions at the global and national levels Also remember that sometimes charismatic leaders are important – recent example would be President Obama and health reform in the States
37 References Axford, N. (2013) Exploring the influence of international governmental organisations on domestic child welfare policy and practice. Adoption and Fostering 37(1) Beland, D. (2010) The Idea of Power and the Role of Ideas Political Studies Review: Vol 8, Hudson, J. and Lowe, S. (2009) Understanding the Policy Process Analysing welfare policy and practice. Bristol: Policy Press. [2004 edition still relevant] Miller, D. and Mooney, G. (2010) Introduction to the themed issue. Corporate power: Agency, communication influence and social policy. Critical Social Policy; Vol.30(4): Shaw, S. (2013) Global Social Policy: Globalized Health Policy in P. Dwyer and S. Shaw An Introduction to Social Policy. London: Sage.
38 References Yeates, N. (ed) (2008) Understanding Global Social Policy. Bristol: Policy Press.