1 Introduction to psychology Kahsay Baranto

2 UNIT ONE Introduction The Essence of Psychology The meaning and definition of psychology Meaning:- "psychology"(  ) is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' and ‘ logos’. Psyche - mind, soul or sprit while Logos means study, knowledge or discourse. "psychology" simply refers to the study of the mind, soul, or sprit. Definition:-Most psychologists today would agree that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. 12/20/20172

3 Behavior is anything we do overt actions and reactions Mental processes are our internal experiences thoughts, feelings, memories…

4 Goals of  A. Description: giving clear picture, about the phenomena. Or tell about what some thing is like. It attempts to answer the question "what." B. Explanation /Understanding: - answer the question "why" by establishing a cause and effect relation ships b/n or among relevant factors. Or telling about why certain behavioral phenomenon is occurred. C. Prediction: - Making generalizations and forecasting the phenomena about the future. Or telling what something would be like in the future. D. Control: - manipulation or managing of a situation based on description, explanation and prediction. Answer the question “ how, when & where” to intervene. 12/20/20174

5 Seven thousand years ago, people assumed that psychological problems were caused by evil spirits Trephination

6 History Early Schools of Psychology There are five early schools of psychology. These schools differ in three significant ways. In their object of study, i.e. what they studied. (Conscious mind, unconscious mind and overt behavior). In their goal (analyze the components of the mind or observing the effect of the environment on behavior). In their method (Introspection, observation, clinical case studies etc...).

7 Schools Of Thought The first psychological laboratory was not created until 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt.Wilhelm Wundt Wundt was responsible for creating the first school of psychological thought called StructuralismStructuralism This school focused only on immediate conscious experience and thought.

8 Structuralism According to this school mind contains I.Sensation II.Images III.Feelings

9 Cont’d Technique: introspection, reporting ones own sensation and feelings as they comes to mind even if they seem insignificant The technique is Subjective, non reliable Conscious means our awareness' of ourselves and the environment.

10 Functionalism Founded by William James (the first American psychologist and 1 st psychological text book) Was concerned about the function of mind which is help us adapt to our ever-changing env’t (evolution) experiments on memory, learning, motivation ….. developed many research methods other than introspection, including questionnaires, mental tests and objective descriptions of behavior.

11 Gestalt Psychology Means whole, pattern, configuration They disregard the reductionist structuralism but believe in consciousness “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts” min is greater than SIF If we separate mind into parts we lose certain qualities Was developed by Max Wertheimer and colleagues

12 Behaviorism John B. Watson Observable behavior, measurable, objective Determination, env’t determines human behavior (tabula rasa john lock) Give me dozen of healthy kids…… believed that all behaviors are learned but not inherited and learners are passive and reactive, when they are stimulated by…

13 Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud “The child is the father of the man” Determinism, early childhood experience The unconscious has the only importance in motivation He used clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream analysis) as a method. We can describe, predict, and control that behavior

14 Summary Of Schools of thought School and founder Object of studyGoal of StudyMethod of Study Structuralism (Edward Titchener) Mind conscious experience Analyzing conscious experience or studying sensation. Analytic introspection. Functionalism (William James) Mind conscious experience How the mind help people to adjust the environment - Observation - Introspection - Measure of performance (Mental test) Gestalt (Max Wertheimer) Mind conscious experience The holistic nature of the mind. - Introspection -Experimentation Behaviorism (J.B. Watson) Observable behaviorControlling behavior - Observation - Experimentation (Conditioning) Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) Mind unconscious experience or Abnormal human behavior. Understanding how personality is affected by hidden motives. - Clinical case studies (Dream analysis and hypnosis) - Free association

15 MODERN PERSPECTIVE IN PSYCHOLOGY 1. BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Focuses on how bodily events or functioning of the body affect brs, feelings and thoughts. An understanding of the brain and the NS is central in the understanding of thought and emotion. Pointed out that biology and br interacts in a complex way w/h means br can affect biology and biology can affect br. We are physical beings who evolved over long time and that is genetic heritage can predispose us to behave in a certain ways. 12/20/201715

16 2. BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE Focus on environmental conditions (rewards and punishments) that maintain or discourage specific brs. It also emphasizes the important role that previous learning experiences play in shaping the br of an organism. It treats the mind as a “ mechanical black box” b/s focuses on what goes in to and out of the box, but not on the processes that takes place inside.  W/c means brsts are only interested in the effects of the env’t (input) on br (out put) but not the process inside the box. 12/20/201716

17 3. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people reason, remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences and form beliefs. It concerns about the mental processes that take place inside the "black box". Show how people's thoughts and explanations affect their actions, feelings and choices. 12/20/201717

18 4. Socio-cultural Perspective Focuses on the social and cultural forces or factors out side the individual affects human br. Social  st considers roles, how group affect attitudes and behaviors, why authority and other people like spouse, lovers, friends, bosses, parents and strangers affect each of us. They said humans are both the producers and the products of culture. 12/20/201718

19 5. PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Child personality determines adult personality. Conflict underlines most human br. (ID,EGO,SUPEREGO) Try to dig blow the surface of unconscious motives; they think of themselves as archaeologists of the mind. The child is the father of the man 12/20/201719

20 6. Humanistic Perspective Emphasizes the uniqueness of human being and focuses on human values and subjective experience. Place greater importance on the individual’s free will. Goal - help people to express them selves creatively and achieve their full potential or self-actualization, (developing the human potential to its fullest). 12/20/201720

21 SUMMARY OF MODERN PERSPECTIVE SchoolEmphasisTechniques Used Biological The role of genetics and evaluation. Exp’t,Field study, Studies on brain & Genetic research. Behaviorist Previous experience; learning; overt behavior. Experiments especially using animals Cognitive Reasoning and mental processing of information. Exp’t on memory, perception & problem solving - Studies of brain activity. Socio-cultural Social&cultural influence on human behavior. Exp’t, cross-cultural studies, Field studies Psychodynamic Humanistic Unconscious process in personality dev’t Uniqueness of human beings - Case studies - Interview, Case studies 12/20/201721

22 Research On Psychology psychological research is typically used for the following: Study development and external factors and the role they play on individuals’ mental health Study people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or characteristics Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenon Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals’ mental health

23 Research Methods Scientific method - a process of gathering ideas and testing them by making observations, experiments and statistical analysis. Theory - is a set of concepts and propositions intended to describe and explain some aspects of experience. Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more variables or phenomena.

24 Research Methods Naturalistic Observation _ Involves the researcher observes, measures & records people’s or animals’ behavior in their common, every day surroundings not intrusive or interfere them. Observation entails gathering data through vision as its main source _ It can use photo camera, video camera, and observational checklist etc...

25 Advantage Commonly used to study infants and young children because they cannot study through self- report techniques. It employs relatively less complicated and less time- consuming procedures of subject selection. It can offer data when respondents are unable and/ or unwilling to offer information.

26 It offers first-hand information without relying on the reports of others. It is relatively inexpensive. The only techniques that can tell us what children or adults do in everyday life. It allows examination of behavior in the natural real world circumstances. The findings are clearly applicable.

27 Limitation - Some behaviors occur too infrequently and unexpectedly. - We cannot draw cause and effect conclusions. The study cannot demonstrate why the observed behavior takes place. - The more presence of an observer can sometimes make people to behave differently. - There is researcher's observation bias. - Problem of replicability and generalizability. - It is inadequate to study sensitive issues such as sexual behavior or family violence

28 Participant Observation t he researcher actually joins the group to be studied (investigated) in order to record thoughts and feelings accessible only to group members

29 Case Study/Case Series Involves detailed description of a particular individual or a few cases only based on careful observation or formal psychological testing. It produces a more detailed picture of the individual over a long period of time. Which means it is a longitudinal study. Case study uses interview to collect information.

30 Advantage Many different methods can be used to gather data such as direct observation, interviews, testing, etc. This flexibility provides researchers excellent opportunities for acquiring insight into specific behaviors. Because it may continue for long periods of time, the researcher is a late to explore important variables and possible relationships among them, in some detail. Limitations Lack of investigative control of important variables potential for subjective observer bias poor sampling techniques that often limit generalization of findings to other people in the clinical category being investigated tendency for subjects to report earlier experiences inaccurately.

31 Correlation Method Studies the degree of relationship between two or more variables. It is used in determining the relationship (correlation) between two or more events, characteristics, behaviours'. The degree and directing of relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient-a numerical value that ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to - 1.00 (a perfect negative correlation)

32 ADVANTAGES: It shows some kind of relationship between variables that can't be clarified by other methods. It shows the degree and direction of relationship It employs statistical methods. Limitations Does not show cause-effect relationship Other variables can not be controlled It is not effective to study qualitative variables like attitudes, beliefs, etc.

33 SURVEY METHODS It is used to collect data about the opinions /attitudes of people towards an event /issue. Interview and questionnaire are instruments used in gathering information about attitudes, experiences of behaviour of a group of people. In most cases, representative samples, which are drawn from the study population, are taken as a source of information.

34 ADVANTAGES It can provide accurate information about large number of participants. It saves time, money, and other resources. Limitations Responses may be inaccurate. Subjects may give false information because of faulty memory or a desire to please the interviewer. They may have the tendency to present themselves in a good light or even they may deliberately attempt to mislead the researcher. Samples may not be true representatives of the population. Characteristics of the interviewer may influence responses.

35 Experimental Method This method allows experimenters to infer cause-effect relationship because it holds constant (as much as possible) all influences on participants' behavior except those being explored. Experimenters work with two groups of subjects: -the experimental group, is exposed to the experimental condition (independent variable) - the control group which does not. A variable is any condition/factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured. All experimenters set out to test a hypothesis (a tentative solution for a problem to be investigated).

36 Experimental Method(2) The variable that the experimenter deliberately manipulates to determine its effects in the other is called independent variable. The one that is expected to change when the independent variable changes is called the dependent variable. Example. Does the amount of time students spend have an effect on the grades they receive? Advantages: It shows cause effect relationship because researchers are allowed to exercise strict control over the experimental setting Limitations Artificial nature of the laboratory condition may influence subjects' behaviors. When subjects know that they are participating in an experiment, their behavior may be different from what it would be in a more natural setting. Findings may not be generalized to the real world. It is costly.

37 Some Basic Concepts Independent variable Dependent variable Confounding variable Experimental group Control group

38 UNIT TWO Sensation and Perception Sensation: - is the simple experience that arises from the stimulation of the sense organs. Or it is the transmission of information from the env’t to the brain. Or it is the process by which our sensory systems (eyes, ears and other sensory organs) and nervous systems receive stimuli from our env’t. Scientists disagree about the exact number.

39 For instance, the skin, which is the organ of touch or pressure, also sense heat, cold, and pain, not to mention itching and tickling. The ear, contains receptors (called vestibular senses) that account for the sense of balance. Vestibular senses inform us about the movement and stationary position of the head. The skeletal muscle contain receptors (called kinesthesis) responsible for sense of bodily movement.

40 Sensitivity Of Our Senses Absolute Threshold – is the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus or it is the least amount of energy in order for a sensory system to detect it. Reliable detection is said to occur when a person can detect a signal 50 percent of the time.

41 Cont’d Difference thresholds / just noticeable difference (jnd)/ It is the smallest difference in stimulation that a person can detect reliably half of the time. Or the minimum difference that a person can detect between two stimuli. Internal noise, external noise, and experience level of fatigue, expectation and motivation of the person can affect the detection of the threshold.

42 Sensitivity Cont’d Signal detection theory when we will detect the presence of faint stimulus (signal) with a mid-background stimulation (noise). That means signal detection formulas consider three kinds of variables. These are: 1.Stimulus variables – the types and natures of stimulus. 2.Environmental variables – how much noise or destruction is there. 3.Organismic variables - the person doing the detecting is properly trained, motivated, healthy and alert

43 Sensory Adaptation It is the diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation. When a stimulus is unchanging or repetitive, sensation often fades/disappears. The resulting decline in sensory responsiveness is called sensory adaptation. Such adaptation is usually useful because it spares us from having to respond to unimportant information.

44 Sensory Deprivation It is the absence of normal level of sensory stimulation. Human brain requires a minimum amount of sensory stimulation in order to function normally. If it is too low, it is bad for the brain to function properly. Sensory overload - we are exposed to too much amount of stimulus from the environment which is bad for the brain to function properly. - Generally too little stimulation (sensory deprivation) and too much stimulation (sensory overload) can lead to fatigue and mental confusion.

45 Perception Perception – is the process of organizing, interpreting and integrating of incoming sensory information. Or the understanding of the information that is detected by our senses. Perception consists of three basic processes. These are: Selection Organization Interpretation

46 1. SELECTION  It is the first step in perception.  In almost all situations there is an excess of sensory information, but the brain manages to sort out the important message from the senses and discards the rest this process is known as selective attention. Factors influencing the process of selective attention A.Environmental /Stimulus/ Factors Intensity - the more intense the stimulus the more it will be attended. E.g. the brighter light is more attended than the dull one.

47 GOALS FOR NEXT PERIOD Size - the larger the size of the stimulus the more we give attention and the smaller the size we give less attention. Contrast – what contrasts with the surrounding environment attracts attention easily. E.g. If one stranger and teacher are enter in the class, the students give more attention to the stranger and less attention for the teacher. Repetition – the more repeated the stimulus, the more we give attention. E.g. Advertisement of one company repeated regularly. Movement – sth, w/h moves, is more likely to attract attention than sth stationary.

48 Novelty – A sudden or unexpected stimulus is more likely to catch our attention more easily than the one we have been expecting. B. Psychological Factors Motivation –our current level of satisfaction or deprivation determines what we choose to hear or perceive. - People in need are more likely to perceive something that they think it will satisfy that need. E.g. when you are hungry, you are likely to give more attention to food advertisement rather than car advertisement. 12/20/201748

49 Emotion – your current feeling, mood or mental state affect the kind of stimulus we select. Personality and Interest – individuals select the stimulus and give attention if they are interested. E.g. In the football game a person may give attention to the foot ball game his wife may give attention to the music in the stadium. Previous Experience – the work place, expectation and past experience affects the selection of the stimulus. In general previous experience affects perception because of the effect of perceptual set (expectation about what you would see). 12/20/201749

50 C. Physiological Factors  Biological habituation – Habituation is a tendency to ignore environmental factors that remain constant. -The brain seems “programmed” to pay more attention to changes in the environment than to the stimulus that remain constant.  Feature Detectors (Feature Analysis ) specialized cells in the brain that respond only to certain sensory information.

51 2. Perceptual Organization Organizing stimuli in to patterns or shapes. Perceptual organization integrates sensation in to percepts (meaningful perceptual units, such as images of particular objects). Organization of sensory data can be divided in to the following areas: A. Form perception - refers to the way sensations are organized in to meaningful shapes and patterns. Gestalt psychologists in Germany first studied form perception in the early 20 th century. the whole (perception) is more than the sum of its parts (sensations). The following are some of the ways we group stimuli in our effort to understand the world around us. 12/20/201751

52 1. Figure-ground Relationships Ability to distinguish between the figure as the foreground and the ground as the background E.g. the Jet flying across the sky, the airplane is the figure and the sky is the ground. Figures are closer, more easily remembered and seem to have a shape. If they move their parts move together relative to the background. In contrast grounds are formless, farther a way and stationary. Some times the relationship between figure and ground is more ambiguous and produces reversible figures and grounds. E.g. military uniform 12/20/201752

53 12/20/201753

54

55 HOW DID WE DO? 2. Grouping – refers to the tendency to perceive stimuli as meaningful whole or patterns. OR grouping means placing items in to understandable sets. Organization Principles  Similarity - states that objects that are alike in some way tend to be perceive as belonging together. Or we perceive images that resemble one another as being part of a group, even when they are physically separated. E.g. All the foot ball player of intelligence college wears blue shirts represents all wearing blue are player of intelligence college. 12/20/201755

56  Proximity – The term comes from the word approximate, which means “close.” - objects that are near each other in place or time tend to be grouped together even though they are dissimilar.  Closure –tends to fill in the gaps in an incomplete picture to perceive complete form.  Continuity/Good Continuation/- states that lines, patterns and objects tend to be seen as continuing in one direction, even if interrupted by another objects. 12/20/201756

57 Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) It is the perception that does not require stimulation of a sense organ. The four main categories of ESP. 1. Telepathy/ Mind Reading/ – is a transfer one person’s thought to another as in remote viewing. 2. Clairvoyance - tell sth happen w/t any kind of infn. 3. Precognition – the ability to perceive future events. 4. Psychokinesis - the ability to move objects with out touching them in any way. 12/20/201757

58 UNIT THREE LEARNING The most commonly used definition of learning. “Learning is defined as a relatively enduring change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior as a result of experience and training.” The analysis of the above definition of learning reveals the following attributes of learning. Learning has enduring nature. it results in relatively permanent modification of behavior. Learning is a change in knowledge or behavior. This change does not include changes due to illness, fatigue, intoxication, hanger, maturation and so on. Learning is an internal mental activity that cannot be directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual. Learning depends on experience or practice. Learning results only those changes that occur as a result of the interaction of a person with his/her environment. 12/20/201758

59 Factors affecting learning 1.Goals or purposes 2. Motivational behaviors 3. Organization &presentation of learning materials. 4. Learning activities 5. Attitude 6. Practice 7. Attention 8. Emotional conditions 12/20/201759

60 THEORIES OF LEARNING Behavioral views of learning Social learning theory Cognitive views of learning Behavioral views of learning S-R theories without reinforcement Pavlov’s Classical Theory of Learning Watson’s Theory of Learning S-R theories with reinforcement Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning Thorndike’s Theory of Learning 12/20/201760

61 I. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning / Respondent/ Conditioning or type 1 Learning/ The theory of classical conditioning represents a process in which a natural stimulus paring with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus acquires all the characteristics of a natural stimulus. It is also called substitution learning because it involves substituting a neutral stimulus in place of natural stimulus. Stimulus  anything in the environment that one can respond to. Responses  any behavior or action towards a stimulus. 12/20/201761

62 Components of Classical Conditioning 1. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - is the natural stimulus that triggers a response automatically and reflexively.  It is unlearned, internal and consistently elicits a response. 2. Unconditioned response (UCR) - the automatic response to unlearned stimulus (UCS) reflexively but not learned and it works naturally. 3. Conditional stimulus (CS) - Originally neutral stimulus that through association (learning), gains the power of eliciting a response. 4. Conditioned response (CR) - is the response to the CS. - It is process of developing a learned response and it is similar to UCR. 12/20/201762

63 Before conditioning Bell (Neutral stimulus) or CS No salivation. Food (natural stimulus) or UCS salivation (UCR). During conditioning Bell (CS) + food (UCS) salivation (UCR). After conditioning Bell (CS) salivation (CR). 12/20/201763

64 E.g. we can take white rat (CS), Loud noise (UCS) and fear of the child. - White rat leads to No response. - Loud sound elicit UCR (fear) -White rat + loud noise with several pairings fear  White rat (CS) elicit fear (CR) 12/20/201764

65 To make conditioning effective; - The time laps between the presentations of the two stimuli (CS&UCS) should be small ranging from half to a few seconds. - The CS should present before the presentation of the UCS (sometimes simultaneously). 12/20/201765

66 HOC Higher order conditioning : pairing conditioned stimulus with neutral stimulus results in the conversion of the NS to CS. For this to happen the CS needs to be too strong cos its second level conditioning

67 Principle of classical conditioning . Acquisition: process of developing learned response. . Extinction: is the diminishing of learned response, when the UCS does not follow a CS. . Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the CR after a rest period suddenly stimulated by the CS. . Stimulus Generalization: producing the same response to two or more similar but not identical stimuli. . Stimulus discrimination: producing d/f responses to two or more similar stimuli. 12/20/201767

68 II. Operant/Instrumental/ Skinnerian Conditioning/Type two Learning\ - learning takes place due to rewards or reinforcements & punishments. - He gives more emphasis to the consequences than antecedents. 12/20/201768

69 The steps in short: 1. Exploring the surrounding (action = A) 2. Selecting the correct response which was first found accidentally (Behavior =B) 3. Getting fixated on the successful act, which has now become a habit (consequence = C). 12/20/201769

70 Action 12/20/201770 Consequence Desirable consequence Undesirable Consequence Getting sth pleasant Avoiding sth unpleasant Getting sth unpleasant Avoiding sth pleasant +ve reinforcement) (-ve reinforcement (+ve punishment) (-ve punishment)

71 Reinforcement - It is a stimulus presentation or avoidance increases the probability of the occurrence of the br.  There are two types of reinforcement: 1. Positive reinforcement - the presentation of desirable stimulus to strengthen behavior. 2. Negative reinforcement - the removal of undesirable stimulus to strengthen behavior. Punishment - It is a stimulus presentation or avoidance decreases the probability of the occurrence of the response.  There are two forms of punishments: 12/20/201771

72 1.+ve punishment:- the presentation of unpleasant stimulus decreases the occurrence of response. 2. -ve punishment: the withdrawals of pleasant stimulus decrease the occurrence of a b/r. Note  Both +ve and -ve reinforcement increases the likelihood b/r repeated again.  Both +ve and -ve punishment decreases the likelihood of b/r not repeated again. Ways of effective punishment 1. Immediacy 2. Intensity 3. Consistency 4.Explanations/ justifications/. 5. Reinforcement 6. affectionate person. 12/20/201772

73 Schedules of Reinforcement  There are two major types of reinforcement schedules  Continuous reinforcement schedule and  Partial /intermittent/ reinforcement schedule a.Continuous Reinforcement schedule - give reinforcement for every correct action (responses). b.Partial /intermittent/ Reinforcement schedule - rewards follow only some correct responses. 1. Interval schedule:-Reinforcement is given based on the amount of time that passes between rein forcers. A. Fixed - interval schedule - Reinforcement is given with fixed or predictable time interval. 12/20/201773

74 B. Variable - interval schedule - Reinforcement is given after variable time interval. 2. Ratio schedule - reinforcement is given based on the number of responses learners give b/n reinforcers. I.Fixed - Ratio schedule - reinforcements are administrated after affixed number of responses made. II.Variable - ratio schedules - reinforcers occur after varying number of correct responses have been made.  Therefore variable (Interval & ratio) reinforcement schedules are most appropriate than continuous and fixed (interval & ratio) reinforcement schedules because of predictability 12/20/201774

75 Schedules of Reinforcement 12/20/201775 Continuous reinforcement Schedule Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Schedule Interval Schedule Ratio Schedule Fixed Interval Schedule Variable Interval Schedule Fixed ratio Schedule Variable ratio Schedule

76 Implications of Operant Conditioning  Use reinforcers periodically to extend the desired br.  Give reinforces immediately for a desired br.  Use praise and ignore- means praising who follow rules and ignore rule breakers.  Use the Premark principle to reinforce.  Use shaping - successive approximation, which involves reinforcing progress instead of waiting for perfection.  Reinforce improvement in accuracy, longer periods of performance and participation to persist the br.  Use guidelines when reinforce and punish  Use appropriate schedule of reinforcement to persist br. 12/20/201776

77 III. Observational /Social/ Learning Theory  Albert Bandura is the prime proponent of this theory.  Learning takes place through observation, imitation, modeling, mimicking or watching others.  Vicarious learning – learning by seeing the consequence of another persons.  observing reinforcing consequences (vicarious reinforcement) for that br.  observing a punitive consequence (Vicarious punishment).  Children do not always immediately display br learned from models. This is the evidence that acquisition &performance are not identical. 12/20/201777

78 Steps of observational learning 1. Attention – first paying attention to the model. 2.Retention – mentally represent to the model’s action in some ways as verbal or visual images or both. 3.Production – showing /acting out/ or performing the br. 4.Motivation and reinforcement – feel motivated to learn if the model has been rewarded. 12/20/201778

79 COGNITIVE APPROACHES Pioneers Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis Our cognitive response to events not the events themselves determines our mood, and that mental health problems are consequence of ‘faulty’ or ‘irrational’ thinking. Emotional disorders result from mis - interpretations of environmental events. These thoughts impact directly on our mood, our behavior and our physiological state. Ellis referred to this process as the A-B-C theory of personality functioning, where:

80 UNIT FOUR MEMORY Nature and Definition of Memory Memory: is the process by which we encode, store & retrieve infn (what was learned earlier).  Simply memory is remembering previously learned experience.  Memory process is the mental activities we perform to put infn in the memory, to keep it there & to make use of it later.  It indicates how infn is represented in memory, how long it lasts & how it is organized. 12/20/201780

81 Process of Memory Memory process involves three basic steps. These are: A.Encoding: refers to the process by w/h infn is initially recorded in form usable to memory. - Transform a sensory input in to a form or a memory code that can be further processed. B.Storage: involves keeping/maintaining infn in the memory. - It is the location in memory system in w/h materials are saved. C. Retrieval: it involves the use of stored infn when it is needed. - Materials from storage memory brought in to awareness & used. 12/20/201781

82 Structures/Stages/Forms/of memory According to Atkinson & Sheferin, human memory consists of three different but interacting systems. These are:  Sensory memory/registrar(SM)  Short-term memory (STM)  Long- term memory (LTM) 12/20/201782

83 Structures of Memory Infn from Selecti on Retrieval the env’t Decay Decay Forgetting 12/20/201783 SM STM LTM

84 1. Sensory Memory/ Registrar (SR) It is a component of the memory system that receives infn from the env’t. It is the entryway to memory & the first infn storage area. The type of infn is a very accurate & complete representation of the env’t but it is unprocessed. Capacity of SM is very large, more infn than we can possibly handle at once. Duration if the infn is visual infn it stores in the iconic memory in the form of images for a maximum of one second. - If the infn is auditory it stores in echoic memory in the form of sound patterns for two seconds. 12/20/201784

85 2. Short Term Memory (STM)  It holds the contents of our attention.  Consists of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis.  it is also called working/immediate/active/primary memory.  type of infn in STM are visual images, words sentences & so on received from SM.  capacity is a “magic number seven plus or minus two.”  duration of infn in STM is short, about 20 to30 seconds. 12/20/201785

86  We can overcome the limitation of the infn duration by using rehearsals(1). - There are two types of rehearsals. These are:  Maintenance Rehearsal – involves repeating the infn in the mind.  Elaborative Rehearsal – involves associated with the infn to d/f things & persons that already knows.  This kind of rehearsal is not only retains infn in the STM but also helps to move infn from STM to LTM.  12/20/201786

87  Through chunking(2); a piece of grouping small pieces of infn into meaningful larger units.  The chunk may be a word, a phrase, a sentences even visual images, and it depends on previous experiences. E.g.From 12 digit no 3,4,5,8,1,2,6,9,6,7,1,5 it is easier to put them in to three chunks like 3458,1269,6715. 12/20/201787

88 3. Long Term Memory - It is a relatively permanent storage of meaningful infn. - It holds infn that is well learned. - Type of infn is facts, events, knowledge, skills, either visual images or verbal units or both. - Capacity of LTM also has no practical limits. - Duration of the infn in this memory has no limited time. Or it stores infn for indefinite periods. -The access of infn from STM is immediate but the access of infn from LTM requires time and effort. 12/20/201788

89 - LTM has two categories. These are: A, Declarative/Explicit/ Memory - contains the conscious collections of infn such as facts or events that can be verbally communicated. It is divided in to two: 1, Semantic Memory - stores factual knowledge like rules, concepts, words, propositions, & images. 2, Episodic Memory- memories of events & situations from personal experience/life experience/. B, Non-declarative/Implicit/Memory: - are memories that cannot be brought in to conscious & declared, rather they are shown in actions. - Procedural memory- This memory is a memory of “how to do things” 12/20/201789

90 Serial position effect “It states that if you are shown a list of items and then asked immediately to recall them, your retention of any particular item will depend on its position on the list.” Primacy effect- best recall of items at the beginning of the list Recency effect- best recall of items at the end of the list. When retention of all the items is plotted, the result will be a U-shaped curve. 12/20/201790

91 - The first few items on a list are remembered well b/s STM was relatively “empty” when they are entered, so these items did not have to compete with others to make it in to LTM. They were thoroughly processed, so they remain memorable. - The last items remembered easily b/s they are still sitting in STM. -The items in the middle of the list are not so well retained because by the time they get into STM, it is already crowded. As a result many of this items drop out of STM before they can be stored in STM. 12/20/201791

92 Forgetting - It is the apparent loss of infn already stored & encoded in the LTM. - There are five theories of forgetting. 1. Decay Theory - It states that memory traces fades with time if they are not accessed now & then. - Or the trace simply fades away b/s of disuse & the passage of time. 2. Interference Theory - Forgetting occurs b/s similar items of infn interfere on another in either storage or retrieval. - There are two forms of interference  12/20/201792

93 - Proactive /Forward/ Interference -the infn learned earlier interferes with recall of newer infn/materials/. -Retroactive/Backward/ Interference-the new infn interferes with the ability to remember old infn. 3. New Memory for Old/Displacement/Theory -It states that the new infn entering in the memory can wipe out old infn, just as recording on an audio or videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material. - As you continue to store more and more infn at the same time you lose other infn, which was stored before. 12/20/201793

94 4. Motivated Forgetting Theory  People forget b/s they block from consciousness those memories that are too threatening or painful to live with  People forget b/s they are motivated to forget /we forget, and forget that we forget/. 5. Cue Dependent Forgetting - When we lack retrieval cues, we may fell as if we have lost the call number for an entry in the mind’s library. - To remember, we rely on retrieval cues -items of infn that can help us find the specific infn we are looking for. 12/20/201794

95 Improving Memory  Developing good studying habits w/h is scheduled in the comfortable place.  Paying attention:  Encode the infn in more than one way:  Add meaning:   Take your time & Over learn:  Monitor you learning:  Expanding by using illustrations or examples:  Use rehearsals and form Acronyms:   Use the method of loci: 12/20/201795

96 UNIT FIVE Emotion and Stress - Emotion: - It is a Latin word w/c means, “ to set in motion.”  Emotion- is a motivated state i.e marked by physiological arousal, expressive br & mental experiences, and varies in its intensity & pleasantness or unpleasantness. - It involves 3 major components. 1. Physiological changes 2. Subjective cognitive states 3. Expressive behaviors 12/20/201796

97 1. Physiological changes heart rate & blood pressure, blood flow to various parts of the body, activity of stomach & gastrointestinal system, levels of various substances such as hormones in the blood, breathing rate and depth. 2. Subjective cognitive states- Involves the importance of thoughts, beliefs & expectations in determining the type & intensity of emotional response. 12/20/201797

98 3.Expressive brs (overt experience)  Refers to the out ward signs of emotions.  This occurs b/s of the presence of non-verbal cues: outward, observable signs of others’ internal emotional states.  Difficult to know the intensity of emotions on others to what extent they are happy or anger.  Non-verbal cues : facial expression, eye contact, body movements, posture and touching. Facial expressions - moods & feelings are often reflected in the face. six d/t emotions anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness and surprise. 12/20/201798

99 Eye contact- we do often learn much about others feelings from their eyes. Body language - our current mood or emotions is often reflected in the posture position and movement of our body.  A hand over the mouth & by covering the eyes shows embarrassment and shame.  When we like some one, we tend to use more open gestures than we do not.  Crossed arms & crossed legs signal that we are unsure or uneasy, defensive or do not like the other person.  body posture the way in w/c we sit or stand is a good indictor of the way we feel. - e.g. a drooping body posture can show that a person is very depressed, while a taut upright position might show extreme anxiety. 12/20/201799

100 Touching – Growing evidence indicates that when one person touches another in a manner that is considered acceptable in the current context, positive reactions generally resulted. Theories of Emotions 1.James- Lange Theories  it says emotions depend on feed back from the body.  States the emotions that we experiences are the result of physiological changes in our body.  Means physiological changes precedes emotional experience.  In short, emotion is the perception of one’s bodily reactions.  E.g. 1. You may feel frightened, when making a public speech b/s you notice that your heart is racing, your mouth is dry and so on. 12/20/2017100

101 2. The sight of on coming car (stimulus), pounding heart (arousal) and produces fear (emotion). 2. Cannon- Bard Theory  suggests that various emotion provoking events induce simultaneously the subjective experience we label as emotions and the phys/cal reactions that accompany them. Or emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) Physiological responses & (2) the subjective experience of emotions. 12/20/2017101

102 In short physical changes & emotional experience occur simultaneously. E.g. the sight of on coming car (stimulus), pounding heart (arousal) and fear (emotion) simultaneously. 3. Schachter - Singer Theory/two-factor theory  It suggests that to experience emotion we must be physically aroused, and cognitively label the arousal.  Emotion-provoking events produce increased arousal. In response to feelings of arousal, we search the external env/t in order to identify the causes of such feelings. The causes we then select play a key role in determining the emotion we experience. 12/20/2017102

103 E.g. The sight of on coming car (stimulus) pounding heart (arousal) & cognitively labeled an “ I’m afraid” and results fear (emotion).  In short, this theory holds that the emotion we feel is due to our interpretation of an arousal or stirred up bodily state. 12/20/2017103

104 Stress  It is internal states w/h can be caused by physical demands on the body (disease conditions, exercise, extreme temperature etc…) or by env’tal and social situations, which are evaluated as potentially harmful, uncontrollable or exceeding our resources for coping.  Or any circumstance that threaten our well-being and that there by tax our coping abilities. The threat may be to our immediate physical safety, our long- range security, our self-esteem, our reputation, our peace of mind or many other things that we value. - Subjective appraisals of potentially stressful events depends on: familiarity with the challenge, the controllability and the predictability of the events. 12/20/2017104

105 Major Types of stressors - stressors- are stimuli that cause stress. These are: a. Life events(daily stress, life changes & catastrophes) b. Pressure c. Frustration d. Conflict of motives A. Life events I. Daily stress- every day hassles we regularly face. E.g, misplace your ticket to a concert, economic upheaval suicide, murder and the like brings high level of daily stress. II. Life changes – are any noticeable alternations in one’s living circumstances that require readjustment. · E.g. marriage, divorce, death of family members and the loved one, moving to a new home. III. Catastrophes- these are earthquakes, floods, and wars are all large-scale, relatively unpredictable life threatening events. 12/20/2017105

106 B. Pressure- involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way. E.g. You are under pressure to perform when you are expected expecting tasks and responsibilities quickly, efficiently and successfully. Pressure to conform to other’s expectations is also common in our lives 12/20/2017106

107 Coping with stress Coping consists of all things people do to control, tolerate or reduce the effects of life’s stressors. Coping is not a single strategy that applies to all circumstances. Techniques people use change over time and circumstances, depending in the nature of the stressors & the particular situation. Researchers often distinguish three types of coping strategies. These are: 12/20/2017107

108 1. Efforts to change the situation - Typically involve problem solving. Try to remove the stressor, plan ways of resolving the situation, or seeking advice or assistance from others in changing the situation. High problem solving ability & who have problem solving orientation (define problems as challenging & to confront them directly) report less stress & fewer psychological symptoms. 12/20/2017108

109 2. Efforts to alter one’s cognition about the situation – Reframing an event mentally to make it seem less threatening. -Done through turning problems to challenges, -loses to unexpected gains, and -making social comparisons. 3. Efforts to alter the unpleasant emotional consequence of the stress - Try to relive the associated emotional state through relaxation, body massage & physical exercise. 12/20/2017109

110 UNIT SIX Motivation and Frustration - motivation( Latin) = "move." - It is a force that energizes, sustains, & directs br towards a goal. - Just as a force moves an object, motivation moves a person. -Never observe directly but  sts often measure motivation by observing -what individuals do (initiation) -how they make choices (direction), -noting the strength of their br (intensity) -and how long they engage in them (persistence). 12/20/2017 110

111 Classification of Motives 1. Primary (biological) or physiological motives - are innate in nature & must be met for survival. E.G. hunger, pain avoidance, a need for oxygen, sleep, elimination of wastes & regulation of body to. - Homeostasis. 2. Secondary (Acquired) or social motives  are learned from social env’t. 12/20/2017 111

112  The need for achievement  The need for affiliation (relatedness)  Power motivation  Stimulus motives- motives to know & to be effective - Seek variety in stimulation, - Process infn about the world around us, & - Explore & to be effective in mastering challenges from the env’t. 12/20/2017 112

113  Extrinsic Motivation - motn to engage in an activity as a means to an end.  Intrinsic Motivation- motn to engage in an activity for its own sake. Theories of Motivation 1. Drive Theories/Push Theories of Motivation - say "when an internal driving state is aroused, the individual is pushed to engage in br w/h will lead to a goal that reduces the intensity of the driving state." 12/20/2017 113

114 2. Incentive Theories/Pull Theories of Motivation  People pulled from with out by expectations of attaining desired out comes (incentives). 3.Arousal / Optimal Level /or Just Right Theories  According to this theory we have a certain optimal or best level of stimulation that is pleasurable if our stimulation and activity levels become too high we try to reduce them, if the level is too low we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation until to get the optimum level of arousal. 4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motivational Needs A. Physiological /survival/ or primary needs B. Safety needs C. Love and Belongingness needs D. Esteem needs E. Self-actualization 12/20/2017 114

115 Frustration  It refers to the blocking of any goal directed br.  Sources of Frustration  1. Environmental Forces  2. Personal inadequacies  3. Conflict of motives  The four basic kinds of motivational conflicts. 1. Approach -Approach Conflict  Occurs when one is simultaneously (equally) attracted to two or more desirable goals /outcomes. 12/20/2017 115

116 2. Avoidance - Avoidance Conflict  Occurs when a person faced & motivated to two or equally unattractive choices, but he/she must be choose one. 3. Approach Avoidance Conflict  Occurs when a person is motivated to both approach & avoid the same goal. 4. Multiple (Double) Approach-Avoidance Conflict  Occurs when a person is faced (motivated to both approach and avoid two different goals. 12/20/2017 116