1 Knights in armor, the Crusades, castles and great cathedrals, the Black Death, the Magna Carta—all of these are part of the historical period called the Middle Ages, also known as the medieval era. When was this and how did this period influence the development of western civilization? Medieval Europe

2 Defining the Medieval PeriodThere is some debate concerning the beginning and the end of the medieval period. Historians usually place the medieval era from approximately 500 CE to 1500 CE, or the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance. Europe during this time period has also been called: “The Middle Ages”—This refers to the fact that this time is situated between Classical Europe and more modern times. “Medieval” comes from the Latin medium aevum, which translates loosely as “Middle Ages.” “The Dark Ages”—This was a term used in the 15th and 16th centuries by those who believed the era lacked social or artistic worth—a somewhat unfair criticism. Historians generally avoid using this overly judgmental term. The time period has also been called the “Middle Ages” and the “Dark Ages”

3 Medieval Europe: StagesThe Middle Ages can be broken down into three time periods, each made distinctive by major civilization-changing events: Early Middle Ages—After the fall of the Roman Empire, small independent kingdoms arose throughout western Europe. This era also witnessed the birth of feudalism, a system of sovereignty and protection which will be discussed later in this presentation. High Middle Ages—During this era, Christianity became a dominant force, uniting western Europe under the authority of the Catholic Church. The Crusades occurred during this time period, allowing territorial leaders to bring diverse groups together and command authority by ordering people to defend their beliefs against the mounting threat of Islam. Late Middle Ages—This era was characterized by the decline of feudalism and the rise of nation-states ruled by royal families. Events during this time period also included the Hundred Years’ War and the spread of the bubonic plague (the “Black Death”), which killed between one-third and one-half of the population of Europe.

4 The Fall of the Roman EmpireBeginning of the Middle Ages Invasions End of the Roman emperors What has been referred to as the fall of the Roman Empire marked the beginning of the Medieval era, and it also contributed to the social and political climate of Europe for centuries afterwards. Historians note that the Roman Empire, especially the city of Rome, fell for multiple reasons; however, one of the most significant reasons was the invasion of barbarian tribes. Rome was under constant threat of invasion from all sides, including Germanic tribes from north-central Europe, the Huns from Asia, and African tribes in the south. Several barbarian tribes eventually did attack, particularly in the west. Germanic invaders from the north took lands as far south as Greece and Gaul (France). Rome itself was sacked by Visigoths in 410, the Vandals in 455, and finally, in 476, Germanic invaders overthrew the last of the Roman emperors.

5 The Barbarian InvasionsFrom Asia: Huns and Magyars From the Germanic north: Saxons, Angles, and Goths The founders of Europe’s future nations settled in the European mainland during the early medieval period. Invaders from Asia (namely the Huns and the Magyars) and German tribes (like the Saxons, Angles, and Goths) became less nomadic and created permanent settlements. Although many of the kingdoms created were short-lived and unstable, they marked a new era of European development for population centers away from Rome. Europe in 814

6 Rise of the Germanic PeoplesOstrogoths: Italian peninsula Visigoths: modern-day Spain Angles and Saxons: modern-day Britain Franks: central Europe After the Germanic invasions, Roman influence merged with the Germanic culture and people in different ways. The Ostrogoths (in the Italian peninsula) preserved Roman governmental structure and traditions. The Visigoths, located in modern-day Spain, kept Roman traditions but installed Germanic leaders. In the British Isles, the Angles and Saxons each carved out portions to create their own kingdoms. The strongest of Germanic tribes was the Franks, located in central Europe, who gained much of their strength under Clovis and Charlemagne. “Invasion of the Goths into the Roman Empire,” a 19th-century painting

7 Clovis (466–511) Established a Frankish kingdom in central EuropeConquered many competing tribes and regional Roman political leaders Converted to Christianity In 486, the Franks defeated the last major Roman army in Gaul (present-day France) then subdued other tribes and minor rulers in the area to establish the first Frankish Kingdom. Clovis, the first Frankish king, had a brilliant military career and dramatically expanded the holdings of his empire through battles with both competing tribes and remaining regional Roman political leaders. During his reign, he converted to Christianity—supposedly after praying to Jesus during a battle. This helped to establish bonds with Christians now under his rule through military conquest.

8 After the death of Clovis, Charles Martel became leader of the FranksAfter the death of Clovis, Charles Martel became leader of the Franks. He continued to expand and defend the Frankish Kingdom, including the defeat of Muslim invaders in 732. After his death, his son, Pepin, asked the head of the church, Pope Zacharias, to recognize him as king. The pope agreed and Pepin became the first Frankish king to rule with papal blessing. Pepin ruled until 768. His successor, Charles, continued the relationship between the Frankish kingdom and the church and expanded it further.

9 Charlemagne (742–814) Powerful leader, strong ChristianCreated the Carolingian Empire Crowned by Pope Leo III as the first Holy Roman Emperor Pepin’s son, Charles, became leader of the largest empire since the Romans. Known as Charlemagne (Charles the Great), he was another fierce military leader who sought to expand the Frankish empire. The vast new territory that he created became known as the Carolingian Empire. During his rise to power, Charlemagne was summoned by Pope Leo III, who crowned him the Emperor of the Romans (or Holy Roman Emperor), uniting the Roman, Christian, and Germanic cultures and traditions.

10 Charlemagne defeated the Lombards to the south, the Saxons to the north, and the Slavs to the east. After Charlemagne’s death, his empire quickly fell apart as his grandsons fought one another for control. Powerful local nobles came to control land interests throughout Europe, leading to a decentralization of power. Adding to the disorder were constant raids carried out by Scandinavian warriors known as Vikings.

11 The Vikings Warrior culture from Scandinavia Raided EuropeEstablished settlements throughout Europe and even in North America The Vikings were a warrior culture from Scandinavia, hailing from the areas we now know as Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Scholars disagree about the reasons why the Vikings began to aggressively raid other cultures and settle their lands. Overcrowding in the Viking homelands may have forced them to seek new territory; crop failures or a desire to find new trade outlets may also have been factors. Viking settlers ended up as far south as the Mediterranean, as far East as modern-day Russia, and as far west as modern-day Iceland, Greenland, and even Canada. They overran a large area of northwestern France and called it Norsemanland, later known as Normandy. A Viking longboat

12 Charlemagne’s heirs had difficulty maintaining law and order in the kingdom’s fragmented territories, and the Vikings gained footholds in many areas of the Carolingian Empire. Though they had success in the 9th century venturing into the European mainland, the Vikings eventually lost their edge as the growing kingdoms of Europe developed new, more effective ways to organize and defend themselves.

13 A French vassal receiving a feudal grant from the kingFeudalism A political, economic, and social system in which land was allocated in exchange for services; roles and obligations were clearly defined for all participants Grew out of Roman practices of clientage/patronage Originally developed as a means of protection and defense Feudalism developed out of peoples’ need for protection against invaders and landowners’ need to defend their property. The feudal system grew out of the practices of “clientage” or “patronage” which had existed under the Roman Empire; these practices involved smaller landowners placing themselves under the protection of larger landowners, usually in exchange for payment or goods. In medieval feudalism, individual monarchs throughout Europe were unable to afford protection of their empires, so they gave trusted soldiers parcels of land in exchange for their promise to defend it and make it useful. Feudalism appeared in Europe during the 700s in the areas we know now as France and Germany, as weak governments sought solutions to the question of how to provide security with limited resources. By the 1000s, most of western Europe practiced some form of feudalism. A French vassal receiving a feudal grant from the king

14 Roles in the Feudal SystemLord Vassal Fief Manor Serf Lord—A landowner, usually a noble, although sometimes lords were bishops Vassal—A person (usually a soldier) given a piece of land by the lord Fief—The land itself that is given Manor (sometimes referred to in the context of the “manorial system”)—A basic unit of land, usually big enough for the supervision of a single noble or knight Serf—Though it technically translates as “slave,” the word “serf” (often used interchangeably with “peasant”) refers to a worker on the lord’s manor. Though not truly slaves, serfs had no legal rights and were compelled to work on their assigned land. Feudal serfs

15 The Feudal Power RelationshipIn most European feudal relationships, a power structure evolved that remained intact for several centuries. At the top of the power pyramid was the monarch, who granted autonomous control over different parts of the kingdom to nobles. These nobles became “vassals” of the monarch, and in exchange for land, each vassal swore an oath of “fealty” or loyalty to the monarch. Although the nobles were powerful, they often subdivided their land grants to lesser nobles or knights who then became the vassals of the noble in much the same capacity as the nobles served the monarch. The vast majority of people in the feudal system were peasants—very poor individuals who were responsible for tending the land. All of these relationships were based on exchange: the monarch granted land in exchange for management, the nobles granted land and protection in exchange for goods, and the lesser nobles granted protection in exchange for goods. All levels of society were bound by loyalty to the level above them.

16 Knights Elite military soldiers Usually from the noble classesStages of training: page, squire, knight Chivalry Knights tended to be vassals of nobles. In exchange for land, they would swear an oath of fealty to the noble and agree to fight for them and protect them. Horses, heavy armor, and weapons were expensive, which meant that elite warriors usually came from the noble classes or were financed by them. There were two types of soldiers in feudal Europe: common foot soldiers (usually peasants forced into service) and knights—the elite warriors. A knight’s training was rigorous and took a great deal of time: boys were often chosen to be knights early in life so that training could begin. Milestones in a knight’s life were as follows: Age 7: served as a “page,” an attendant in the personal service of an individual knight; given basic lessons in horsemanship and basic hand-to-hand fighting skills Age 14: successful students would be granted the title of “squire,” which included sword privileges and increasingly difficult physical challenges and tasks such as assisting a knight in battle Age 21: formally qualified to become a knight Knighthood could be achieved in one of two ways: usually, a squire would be knighted as a rite of passage at the end of his training; however, he could also be granted knighthood after a particular act of bravery. Knights were supposed to live by a code of behavior known as chivalry, which required them to remain loyal to their lords, fight with honor, treat all with justice, and act politely towards women. Although chivalry has often been celebrated and idealized in literature and popular imagination, many historians note that it wasn’t universally practiced and its rules were often ignored. Statue of a medieval knight

17 The Medieval TournamentMeans of practicing military skills Knights practiced their military skills in exercises known as “tournaments”—mock battles that involved both real weapons and actual combat (though some tournaments outlawed points on swords). Tournaments ranged from small affairs with a handful of knights to grand, staged affairs played out in front of large audiences. Rules varied throughout the ages, but as tournaments became more violent, the various monarchs of Europe sought to limit—or, in some cases, to ban—the practice. Another popular sport in late medieval Europe was jousting, which involved two knights charging each other on horseback and attempting to dismount one another.

18 Warwick Castle, EnglandCastles Centers of noble life Purposes: Intimidation Military defense Residence Castles were centers of life for nobles and knights, serving as homes and fortresses. Building a castle was often a lifelong pursuit for nobles; some castles would even take several generations to complete. Castles were usually constructed by serfs and masons (craftsmen who worked with stone). Once erected, these buildings would serve a number of purposes: Intimidation—Castles were often built in the spirit of competition with other nobles, friendly or otherwise. A large castle could serve as a sign of a noble’s strength, esteem, or power. Castles were often placed on the highest point in a region so they could be seen from great distances. Military defense—Castles were most certainly built with military use in mind. They had clever defensive designs, incorporating elements such as moats, large watchtowers, and high walls. Castles were sometimes built on the outer regions of a noble’s land grant as a means of encroaching on another noble’s territory. Residence—Nobles and their families lived in castles. The castles of the higher nobles were often lavishly decorated, with rich tapestries on the walls, grand halls, and music rooms. Castles were dark, lit only by torches and fireplaces. The rooms were large and drafty because windows did not have glass in them. Warwick Castle, England

19 Catholic Church HierarchyThe Catholic Church provided one of the few unifying elements in Europe after the Fall of Rome. During medieval times, the Church evolved into a strict hierarchy which still exists today. The levels of this hierarchy include: The Pope—leader of the Catholic Church; directs Church policy Cardinals—appointed by the Pope; they both advise the Pope and select the Pope’s successor when he dies Archbishop—supervisor of a large region or major city Bishop—priest in charge of a particular region or church government post Priest—minister who performs most day-to-day Church activities; priests are usually associated with a specific church or church organization

20 The Catholic Church Expands Its PowerThe Church becomes more of a political entity Struggles with monarchs Gregory VII and Henry IV Expanded land ownership As the Catholic Church grew in popularity and worshippers, Popes worked to increase the Church’s power as a political entity. As kingdoms came and went in the early Middle Ages, many Popes asserted that their authority was equal to or greater than the various political leaders of Europe. In 1075, a controversy erupted when Pope Gregory VII insisted that the Church, not the kings, should control the appointment of archbishops, bishops, and other clergy. Henry IV of Germany disagreed and, after the two men exchanged bitter letters, the pope excommunicated him. The pope also threatened to excommunicate any German clergy who did not obey him. Because much of Henry’s army came from lands administered by the Church, he was vulnerable to attack from powerful nobles. Henry went to Italy to seek papal forgiveness, while at the same time, the pope started a journey to Germany to install a new king. They met at a castle in Canossa, Italy, where Henry stood in the snow for three days before Gregory forgave him. Though this episode resulted in a dramatic collapse of royal power, the pope was unable to control other European monarchs in the same manner. The rivalry between Church and state continued for centuries; however, there was no question that Europe was united in the Christian faith. Throughout this era, the Catholic Church dramatically expanded its property holdings and became the largest single landowner in Europe—also making it extremely wealthy. Many Popes hoped to use the growing power and wealth of the Church to unify Europe into a large, Christian state. Pope Gregory VII Henry IV of Germany

21 The Monastic Movement Became popular in the 5th centuryArose as a reaction against the increasing “worldliness” of the Church Monasteries: secluded religious communities Benedictine monasticism: vows of chastity, poverty, obedience A Christian movement called monasticism, which had begun in the 3rd century, became more popular in the 5th century. Concern about the growing “worldliness” of the church led to criticism by those who felt that a meditative life organized under strict regulations of silence, obedience, physical labor, and religious practices was closer to the true meaning of Christianity. Throughout Europe, religious men and women established secluded enclaves called monasteries that were dedicated to these ideals. Men in these communities were called monks and women were known as nuns. They lived simple lives, often in basic communal dwellings. The most prevalent model of the time was Benedictine monasticism, modeled after the life of Saint Benedict of Nursia (480–543). Benedictine monasticism involved taking three vows: chastity, poverty, and obedience. Most monks lived highly structured lives and engaged in activities such as producing copies of classical works (which they did by writing out the complete work by hand), reading, studying, and manual labor—especially farming, which would often serve as the main source of economic support for a monastery. St. Benedict

22 The Inquisition New orders: Franciscans and DominicansThe Inquisition: special court established by the Church to combat heresy Accused heretics sometimes tortured Convicted heretics burned at the stake Monasticism was not the only new movement in the Church. Other new religious orders such as the the Franciscans and Dominicans dedicated themselves to working in the community rather than retiring from it. Founded in the early 13th century, the Franciscans and Dominicans were both mendicant orders—members took vows of poverty and depended on charity to support them so that they could devote all their time to preaching and aiding the poor and downtrodden. The orders were also a response to the growing number of heretics who had become disillusioned with the Church and were interested in ideas contrary to Church doctrine. They hoped that providing examples of religious men and women leading “godly” lives in service to the community would draw people back to the Church. Many continued to deviate from Church doctrine, so in 1233 the Church established a special court called the Inquisition in order to combat heresy. The Dominicans, who were usually highly educated and skilled in debate, were often chosen to direct the operation of the Inquisition. Accused heretics were brought before the Inquisition and if they admitted error, they would be released after a penance was administered. If they were slow, or uncooperative, they would be tortured. A convicted heretic was burned at the stake. A suspected heretic being tortured by the Inquisition

23 A map of medieval European universitiesNeed for administrators Muslim knowledge, renewed interest in classical writings Universitas As new kingdoms and the Church grew during the early Middle Ages, so did the need for educated administrators. Prior to the 1100s, education had taken place within monasteries or in large urban cathedrals run by bishops. In addition, Muslim schools in cities such as Cordoba and Baghdad had preserved and promoted the study of writings from ancient Greece and Rome. As knowledge from these schools made its way to the rest of Europe, it stimulated a renewed interest in classical writings such as the works of Aristotle, the study of law, philosophy, and medicine. Groups of students and teachers in Europe would gather to study in groups known as “guilds,” or universitas in Latin. These evolved into universities. The first European universities developed in Salerno and Bologna, Italy. Others were established in Paris, France, and Oxford and Cambridge in England. A map of medieval European universities

24 France Hugh Capet (938–996) Philip II (1180–1222)Philip IV (1285–1314) Most powerful kingdom in Europe by the 14th century Beginning in the 8th century, foundations were laid for many modern European nations. Although the borders would stay fluid for many coming centuries, the political basis for countries like France, England, and Spain began to appear. In 987, the Capetian dynasty assumed French rule under Hugh Capet (“capet” is a nickname meaning “wearing a cape”). At the time, France was a collection of semi-independent states that included Normandy, Flanders, Anjou, and Aquitaine. Capet thus had limited royal authority and the nobles in the territories gave him only token allegiance. Later, Philip II managed to bring several feudal territories claimed by England under French control. His military successes also enabled him to gain more authority over the nobility. By the reign of Philip IV (1285–1314), France had become the most powerful state in Europe. Hugh Capet

25 England 1066: Norman Invasion William the Conqueror (1027–1087)Brought feudalism to England Henry II (1154–1189) Instituted a single common law code, unified court system In 1066, the Normans—a French-speaking group of Viking descendants who had settled in Northern France—invaded England and toppled the Saxon king. Under William the Conqueror, the Normans established an Anglo-Norman government that slowly integrated traditional customs of the region with Norman traditions. William the Conqueror imported French-style feudalism into England. After William’s death in 1087, England went through a time of brief destabilization as his heirs fought over his titles and property. The country regained its strength under Henry II (1154–1189). Henry instituted a single common law code which applied equally to citizens; he also created a unified court system which included jury trials. William the Conqueror

26 Magna Carta (1215) Conflict between King John and the English nobilityNobles rebelled against excessive taxation, forced King John to sign the Magna Carta in 1215 Limited power of the monarch Formal recognition that the king was not above the law England experienced many instances of conflict between the king and the nobility. The situation became critical under King John. In an effort to raise money for war against France, John levied excessive taxes, thereby weakening his support throughout the country. After John was defeated in France, the nobles rebelled against him and forced him to sign the Magna Carta (Latin for “great charter”), a document that guaranteed rights to nobles and dramatically limited the power of the king. In practice, it meant that a “great council” made up of the king’s leading vassals had to approve any taxes levied beyond the king’s personal revenue. In theory, the Magna Carta established the principle that the king was not above the law. Ordinary English people did not benefit from this immediately, but over time the principles of the document were extended to protect the rights of all citizens. A photograph of the Magna Carta

27 Development of ParliamentHenry III (1216–1272) Edward I (1239–1307) Original parliament House of Lords: nobles and church lords House of Commons: knights and residents Approved taxes, discussed policies, worked with the monarch to make laws As the 13th century progressed, English kings continually needed money—especially for war. The great council, later called Parliament (from the French parler, meaning “to speak”), wanted to control royal spending—and the power of the monarch. When Henry III resisted Parliament’s attempt to extend its influence, a rebellion ensued. Henry was temporarily removed and replaced by a parliament led by one of the nobles. Henry’s son Edward I retook the throne in Edward wanted to be granted the power to collect more money from the people and called for two knights from every county and two residents from every town to be assembled with the king’s Great Council. This was considered to be England’s first representative parliament. Eventually, Parliament was organized into two tiers: The House of Lords was made up of noblemen and church leaders, while the House of Commons was comprised of knights and town residents. Parliament approved taxes, discussed policies, and worked with the monarch to make laws. Edward I

28 Italian City-States Many city-states on the Italian peninsulaChanged hands often; controlled at times by Germanic tribes, Byzantines, and the French Rome and the Papal States remained important After the fall of the Roman Empire, the various states located on the Italian peninsula remained independent of one another. Often referred to as “city-states” because many comprised an area only as large as a single city, these territories were sometimes controlled by Germanic tribes and at other times under the rule of the Byzantines or the French. One of the few exceptions was the Papal States, which included the city of Rome. This area remained important due to its location as the headquarters of the Catholic Church. Medieval Italy

29 Great Mosque of CórdobaIslam in Europe Islamic forces took control of Spain in the early 8th century Muslim innovations Agriculture Architecture Math and science Islam had arisen on the Arabian peninsula in the early 7th century and had continued to spread after the death of Muhammad, its founder, in 632. Under the leadership of the Umayyad dynasty, Islamic territory expanded into Europe: by 710 they controlled North Africa, and in 711 they moved across the Strait of Gibraltar and invaded the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal). By 725, Muslims controlled most of Spain, with the city of Córdoba acting as the Muslim “capitol.” Muslim innovations had a significant impact on Spain. In agriculture, the Muslims introduced new crops such as oranges, dates, and rice, as well as new methods of irrigation that significantly improved productivity. Muslim architects introduced new designs that would influence building in Spain for years. Numerous mosques and palaces were built, including the Alhambra in Granada and the Great Mosque at Córdoba, which was constructed with a complex interior consisting of a multitude of low, rounded arches made of alternating black and white stones. In addition, Arabic knowledge in science, mathematics, and medicine was far superior to anything in Europe at the time. For example, Arabic numerals (i.e., 1, 2 ,3, instead of the Roman I, II, III) became the standard in algebra, mathematics, astronomy, and physics; the Muslims also introduced the concept of “zero” to Europe. Great Mosque of Córdoba

30 The Reconquista of SpainMuslims ruled the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years Reconquista: Struggle between Christians and Muslims to control Spain 718–1492 King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile The Iberian peninsula was dominated by the Muslims for nearly 800 years, a rule which began in the 8th century. The Reconquista—the struggle between Christians and Muslims to control the territory—happened across several centuries, from 718 to Over this time, Christian forces slowly pushed the Muslims to the south. The Reconquista left Spain divided, as each region would develop a separate government after gaining their autonomy from the Muslims. The majority of Spain was finally unified under King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile with the final expulsion of the Muslims in 1492. Isabella and Ferdinand

31 The Crusades 1095–1291 Goals of the Crusades: Convert nonbelieversLouis IX of France leads crusaders against Damietta, in Egypt 1095–1291 Goals of the Crusades: Convert nonbelievers Eliminate heretics Regain control of the Holy Land from the Muslims The term “crusade” refers in general to a holy war; however, it is mostly associated with the medieval-era Crusades that went on from 1095–1291. The death of Charlemagne and the subsequent collapse of his empire, the Muslim invasion of Spain, and the fact that Muslims had gained control of the Holy Land made Christian Europe feel as if it were under attack. Some crusades were launched in an attempt to convert large numbers of nonbelievers; others were launched to fight against behavior and beliefs that the Christian Church found offensive. The Crusades also targeted heretics—other Christians who did not conform—and non-Christians, especially those of the Muslim faith. Finally, crusaders also fought to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims.

32 Pope Urban II 1095: Pope Urban II’s speech Promised spiritual rewardsThousands responded to the call for religious warriors Pope Urban II (1042–1099) sparked the First Crusade by making a dramatic plea to a crowd in France in 1095 for warriors to organize and travel to the Middle East to liberate the Holy Lands from the Muslims. The Pope promised spiritual rewards for the fighters, including forgiveness of their sins in exchange for their service. The speech was so effective that thousands of soldiers marched East the next year to retake the Holy Lands. Pope Urban II calling for the Crusades

33 A depiction of the capture of Jerusalem by crusadersThe First Crusade (1096–1099) 1096: Mostly French knights Captured Jerusalem in 1099 Crusader states Jerusalem taken by Muslim forces under Saladin in 1187 French crusader-knights, referred to as “pilgrims,” left Europe to liberate the Holy Lands from the Muslims in The army traveled first to Constantinople and then to the Middle East, drawing out Muslim fighters throughout their journey. They were able to capture Jerusalem by 1099 after a siege that lasted several weeks. After breaking through the city walls, they killed almost every non-Christian they came across, and also killed several Christians they mistook for Muslims or Jews. As a result of the First Crusade, several small crusader states were created, most notably the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These states were isolated amid Muslim territory, however, and in the 1100s the Muslims began to conquer them. In 1187, forces led by the great Muslim commander Saladin recaptured Jerusalem. A depiction of the capture of Jerusalem by crusaders

34 The Crusade on ConstantinopleOther Crusades Major and minor crusades took place between the 12th and 14th centuries Christians unsuccessful at recapturing the Holy Land Popes invoked crusades more often and for non-spiritual purposes Legacy of the Crusades: Increased trade Religious tensions arose Three major and several minor crusades followed the initial one. They all failed in that the Holy Land was never returned to Christian hands. Pope Urban had shown moral leadership in 1095, but subsequent popes invoked crusades too frequently and over less significant matters. The later crusades became more worldly and less spiritual in purpose. For example, on his return from the Third Crusade, King Richard I of England (known as “Richard the Lion-Heart”) was captured by his enemy Duke Leopold of Austria and held for ransom. In the 13th century, the city-state of Venice had managed to get Frankish soldiers on the Fourth Crusade to attack and conquer Constantinople, not a Muslim stronghold. In all, the Crusades put the Holy Land under Christian control for only a brief period of time. The Crusades did, however, lead to an increase in trade as new cross-Mediterranean trade routes arose to supply the crusaders. The rise in trade also helped spur the growth of towns and cities in Europe, and also gave rise to a new class of urban merchants. In addition, the Crusades not only drove apart Christians, Jews, and Muslims—a rift that still has implications today—but also made the tense relationship between the Catholic Church in western Europe and the Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire even more fragile. The Crusade on Constantinople

35 Battle of Agincourt, 15th centuryThe Late Middle Ages 1300–1500 War Black Death The late Middle Ages was a time of human misery and disaster. The population of Europe suffered greatly from both the Hundred Years’ War and the Black Death, which both occurred during this time period. Battle of Agincourt, 15th century

36 The Hundred Years’ War: CausesStruggles between French and English royal families over who would rule either country Conflicts over territory, trade The Hundred Years’ War was a consequence of the growth of medieval France and England. When William the Conqueror became king of England, he tied the nobility of France to the nobility of England. As a result, tensions mounted over the years regarding who had the right to rule either country. The English and French had also become competitors in many economic pursuits, in particular the wool trade and control of Flemish towns vital to the wool trade. Trouble began when the English claimed Aquitaine, a region in the south of France. In 1329, Edward III of England paid homage—a fee—for Aquitaine to the king of France. When Philip VI took over Aquitaine in 1337, however, Edward responded by invading France, thus beginning a series of intermittent wars that would last for 116 years. English ruler Edward III

37 The Hundred Years’ War: BattlesEngland had early victories The French eventually expelled the British from mainland Europe English military innovation: the archer The Hundred Years’ War started with several English victories. Many historians divide the Hundred Years’ War into four phases: two phases featured English success, each followed by the French rallying to push the English out of their lands. The war ended in 1453 when the French finally expelled the English from mainland Europe. The English use of skilled archers during the war proved to be influential to technology of the time. It was highly effective when used against knights, whose slow, bulky armor couldn’t provide sufficient defense in the face of a multiple arrow attack. The Battle of Crecy, the first major battle of the Hundred Years’ War

38 Joan of Arc being burned at the stakeHeroine of the war Had visions that told her to free France Fought with the army Captured, burned at the stake One of the French heroines of the Hundred Years’ War was Joan of Arc. The daughter of peasants, she claimed that she heard voices that told her to expel the English from France. She managed to persuade the king that she should be allowed to fight alongside the men in the war due to her passion and faith. She became a successful soldier and her will and strength inspired the French to several victories. She was eventually captured by the English and shipped to England to face trial for heresy. Found guilty, she was burned at the stake. Joan of Arc being burned at the stake

39 The Plague During the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, the bubonic plague—commonly referred to as the “Black Death”—ravaged the population of Europe. It was transmitted to humans by fleas that had bitten infected rats. The disease caused very painful swollen lymph nodes called buboes. The name “Black Death” came from the dried blood which would often form under the skin and cause black spots.

40 Spread of the Plague Started in ChinaReached Europe in 1347 via a merchant ship on the island of Sicily 1347–48: southern Europe 1349–50: central Europe and the British Isles The plague started in China and killed millions of people in mainland Asia. Due to its highly communicable nature, it spread very quickly. It first reached Europe in Sicily in 1347, when a merchant ship returning from China landed carrying rats with infected fleas. Trade and travel helped spread the plague to mainland Europe. By 1348, it had ravaged southern Europe. By 1350, it had hit central Europe and the British Isles. The plague spread for several reasons, including the outbreak of war (the Hundred Years’ War was fought while the plague affected Europe) and the fact that many infected people often brought the disease to new locations by trying to escape the horrors of the disease.

41 Popular Medical “Cures” for the PlagueDoctors wore strange costumes Bathing in human urine Wearing excrement Placing dead animals in homes Wearing leeches Drinking molten gold and powdered emeralds Burning incense to get rid of the smell of the dead At the time, the field of medicine did not understand what caused the Black Death—or how to cure it. Doctors wore strange costumes and used folk cures to deal with the disease. Among the more absurd remedies: Bathing in human urine Wearing excrement Placing dead animals in homes Wearing leeches Drinking molten gold and powdered emeralds Burning incense to get rid of the smell of the dead Not surprisingly, these “cures” did little to address the real problems of the plague and many even made the disease worse. A costume worn by doctors to ward off the Plague

42 Effects of the Plague Killed 25–30 million EuropeansUndermined faith in religion Economy Culture influenced The most obvious effect of the plague was the number of people it killed—an estimated 25 to 30 million Europeans, or roughly one-third of the population. The plague also shook many people’s faith in religion. Though many religious leaders blamed the plague on sin, piety and prayer offered no protection against the disease and members of the clergy were as likely to become afflicted as anyone else. In the face of all this, the numbers of those willing to devote their life to the church dramatically declined. The population decrease caused by the plague led to an economic downturn; both the number of available laborers and consumers declined sharply. Merchants and tradespeople had fewer people to whom they could sell their wares. Products therefore accumulated, and the merchants and those who dealt with them—bankers, suppliers, and shippers—all lost revenue. In addition, peasants often left their land in an attempt to escape the disease. The plague also influenced many of the artists of the time; works from this period often had very dark themes and tones.

43 Architecture Many churches and cathedrals built during the Middle AgesChurch designs Romanesque: cross, nave Gothic: ribbed vault, flying buttress, stained glass The Middle Ages saw a boom in the building of cathedrals and churches in Europe. By the 11th century, a clear but short-lived style of architecture emerged called “Romanesque” because it featured a Roman-like style inspired by Italian basilicas. This style produced an interior that was shaped like a Latin cross. From the exterior, a Romanesque church looked massive, with heavy, horizontal lines. The central area of the church (called the “nave”) was covered with a barrel vault, supported by pillars and thick walls. There were few windows; thus, the interior was gloomy. A dramatic new style, known as Gothic, was introduced in the early 12th century. The architects of this style developed the “ribbed vault,” which worked like an umbrella to spread the weight of the roof from columns to the wall. To prevent the walls from collapsing, a structure called a “flying buttress” braced the tress from the outside. When combined with pointed arches, this meant a cathedral could have larger interior spaces and larger windows, allowing the building to be filled with light. Many of these cathedrals used stained glass to fill their windows, and the creation of stained glass evolved into a distinct art form. Chartres Cathedral in France, a prime example of medieval Gothic architecture

44 Illuminated ManuscriptsManu scriptus Scriptorium Art form Prior to the invention of the printing press, all documents were manu scriptus, meaning “handwritten”; this Latin phrase is also the source of the English word “manuscript.” Most of the time, copied manuscripts were bibles or other religious works such as prayer books. The manuscripts were usually produced by monks who went about the laborious task of hand-copying books in a special room called a scriptorium. The monks would also illustrate the manuscripts, a process known as “illumination.” Monks would illuminate manuscripts both to glorify sacred texts and to help the illiterate understand what the book was discussing. After 1200, books became more common and professional scribes and illustrators began producing works. Often they were commissioned by the wealthy. The illumination of manuscripts became an art form. As well as illustrations appropriate to the story, verse, or prayer, capital letters at the beginning of each page were often decorated in bright colors and gold leaf. Page from the Book of Kells, 800 CE, scribed by Celtic monks

45 Legacy of the Medieval EraTransitional period New kingdoms evolved The Church became a dominant force Modern institutions originated The medieval era is considered a transitional period between the ancient classical world and the Renaissance. Immediately after the fall of Rome, Europe disintegrated into a number of small kingdoms and states. Throughout the period, however, new kingdoms gradually evolved into states—England, France, and Spain, for example. The Catholic Church expanded its influence throughout western Europe, with little to challenge its dominance, although issues such as the Inquisition and the Crusades may have diminished its prestige. Despite the popular view of medieval Europe as the “Dark Ages,” many modern institutions originated during this time, including universities, the parliamentary form of government, and banks. What historians often refer to as “modern Europe” was beginning to take shape by the end of the 15th century. The emergence of modern Europe would be shaped by other factors as well—the Renaissance, the Reformation, and global exploration over the next two centuries.