1 Motivation and Emotion9

2 Questions to Consider:How Does Motivation Activate, Direct, and Sustain Behavior? What Determines How We Eat? What Factors Motivate Sexual Behavior? How Are Emotions Adaptive? How Do People Experience Emotions?

3 How Does Motivation Activate, Direct, and Sustain Behavior?Multiple Factors Motivate Behavior Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own Sake Critical Thinking Skill: Recognizing When Psychological Reactance May Be Influencing Your Thinking People Set Goals to Achieve People Have a Need to Belong

4 Learning Objectives Describe Maslow’s need hierarchy and give an example of a motivated behavior for each level of the hierarchy. Explain how intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation affect behavior.

5 How Does Motivation Activate, Direct, and Sustain Behavior?Motivation is defined as the area of psychological science concerned with the factors that energize, or stimulate, behavior Emotions play a prominent role in motivation Eliot Motivations for Taking Class: Prior to beginning lecture in this area, ask students to share why they took this class. As students answer, group the responses on the board or on a transparency into common categories such as achievement motivation, career preparation, need for approval (satisfying Mom and Dad), desire for knowledge, and so on.

6 Multiple Factors Motivate BehaviorBiological and social needs are defined as a state of deficiency Maslow’s need hierarchy: Popular in education and business, but lacks empirical support Maslow in Television: Richard LaFleur (http://whoosh.org/issue11/lafleur2.html) provides an amusing and fascinating application of Maslow’s hierarchy to an episode of Xena. After reading through his work, you should be able to easily apply the hierarchy to other television episodes as well. Alternatively, you could also utilize the Xena episode LaFleur used.

7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs indicates that basic needs, such as for food and water, are satisfied before higher needs, such as for achievement.

8 Multiple Factors Motivate BehaviorDrives and incentives: Drives are psychological states that encourage behaviors that satisfy needs Needs create arousal that motivates behavior Homeostasis describes the tendency for body functions to maintain equilibrium Set-point Incentives are external objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors Motivational Speakers: Some people make significant money by becoming motivational speakers. Ask students to research a motivational speaker prior to class discussion. During discussion, ask students to describe their motivational speaker and what, specifically, he or she did. How did this motivate the audience?

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11 Multiple Factors Motivate BehaviorArousal and performance: The Yerkes-Dodson law dictates that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point and then decreases with increasing arousal

12 According to this law, performance increases with arousal until an optimal point, after which arousal interferes with performance.

13 Multiple Factors Motivate BehaviorPleasure: Sigmund Freud and the pleasure principle From an evolutionary perspective, behaviors associated with pleasure often promote the animals’ survival and reproduction, whereas behaviors associated with pain interfere with survival and reproduction Freud and Instincts: The text briefly mentions Freudian conceptions of drive and the pleasure principle. If time permits, a more extensive discussion of Freud’s ideas including his notion of Eros and Thanatos would be appropriate in this context. For more information about these concepts, try the following Web site:

14 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own SakeExtrinsic motivation: Emphasizes the external goals an activity is directed toward, such as reducing drive or obtaining a reward Intrinsic motivation: Refers to the value or pleasure that is associated with an activity but has no apparent biological goal Alcohol Use: Ask students to discuss why they first began drinking alcohol. If they do not drink, ask them to think about friends of theirs who drink. Did drinking begin because they wanted to belong? Did drinking make interacting at parties easier? What is the drinking situation on campus? If they attend a party where there is drinking, do they feel pressure to drink as well?

15 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own SakePlayful exploration is characteristic of all mammals and especially primates Creativity is the tendency to generate ideas or alternatives that may be useful in solving problems, communicating, and entertaining ourselves and others

16 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own SakeRewarding intrinsic motives: Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation Extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic value because such rewards undermine people’s feeling that they are choosing to do something for themselves

17 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own SakeControl theory and self-perception Bem’s self-perception theory People seldom are aware of their specific motives and instead draw inferences about their motivations according to what seems to make the most sense

18 Critical Thinking SkillRecognizing when psychological reactance may be influencing your thinking Psychological reactance is a motivational state aroused when our feelings of personal freedom are threatened Noticing your thinking is being influenced by this potentially irrelevant variable may lead you to make better choices

19 People Set Goals to AchieveMurray proposed 27 basic psychosocial needs, such as the need for power, autonomy, achievement, and play Self-regulation of behavior is the process by which people alter or change their behavior to attain personal goals Challenging—but not overly difficult—and specific goals are best Goal-Setting: Prior to class, ask students to list their goals in three categories: for the current semester/quarter, for the year, and for the next five years. During class, ask students to share their goals in small groups of four to five students. Ask students to discuss what incentives keep them working toward these goals. Are these goals realistic, yet challenging? What steps are they taking to achieve their long-term goals?

20 People Set Goals to AchieveSelf-efficacy and achievement motivation: Albert Bandura argued that people’s personal expectations for success (self-efficacy) play an important role in motivation Achievement motive is the desire to do well relative to standards of excellence

21 People Set Goals to AchieveDelayed gratification: The ability to postpone immediate gratification is critical in the pursuit of long-term goals Walter Mischel Turning hot cognitions into cold cognitions

22 Ignoring, self-distraction, and turning hot cognitions into cold cognitions are among the techniques children use to delay gratification.

23 People Have a Need to BelongThe need to belong theory states that the need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes Lack of social contact causes feelings of emptiness and despair

24 People Have a Need to BelongAnxiety and affiliation: Schachter’s 1959 study found that increased anxiety led to increased affiliative motivations Misery loves miserable company Other people provide information that helps us evaluate whether we are acting appropriately Festinger’s social comparison theory We are motivated to have accurate information so we can compare ourselves with those around us to test and validate personal beliefs and emotional responses

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26 What Determines How We Eat?Time and Taste Play Roles Culture Determines What We Eat Multiple Neural Processes Control Eating

27 Learning Objectives List those aspects of eating that are more influenced by learning or culture and those that are more influenced by biology.

28 Time and Taste Play RolesWe have been classically conditioned to associate eating with regular mealtimes Animals presented with a variety of foods tend to eat much more than animals presented with only one food type (sensory-specific satiety) Humans show the same effect; people also eat more when portions are larger Set-Point Theory: Set-point theory has been fairly popular and is described in the text. Students who research the topic online will find numerous sites discussing this theory. Recently, researchers have begun to question this theory, arguing that decreased activity levels and not set-point theory explain those who regain lost weight. Additional information about these findings may be found at: Portion Size: The text mentions that portion size is important in determining how much people eat with people eating more when the portion size is larger. Ask students to list their 10 favorite snacks and then go to the store with their list. Ask them to read the back of the package to determine portion size and calories and then to compare this with the amount they typically eat. What did they discover? If they are like most Americans, they will find that they are consuming more than a single serving at one time. Ask students to devise methods to help them control their own portion sizes.

29 (a) Rats will become obese if given ample opportunity.(b) This trend appears to be true for humans as well.

30 Culture Determines What We EatA general rule that determines preferences is familiarity Although people often enjoy novel ethnic foods, in their regular diets most people prefer the foods of their own culture Local norms for what to eat and how to prepare it—cuisine—reinforce many food preferences Religious and cultural values often tell people which foods to avoid Fast Food Nation: This book, and subsequent film, explores the fast food industry and its impact on obesity. Showing a clip from the film, available online from various sources, would be an engaging way to capture student’s interest in this topic. Cultural Mores and Food: Split students into groups of four or five and ask them to bring in dishes from different countries or cultures. Students may need to research to determine which foods they should bring. All students should check with the instructor prior to deciding on a food. Foods that are easily brought might include: chocolate-covered insects, escargots, fried pigskin, fish taco, grits, plantains, star fruit, or ugli fruit. On the day that students bring their foods, ask each group to discuss the history and cultural background of the food they have brought. Allow each student to try each dish. What are student reactions to the food? Did any student refuse to try something? Discuss how culture can influence taste preference, and how most of our taste preferences are learned. Ask students to think of foods in the United States that might sound unsavory to someone from another culture.

31 As this graph illustrates, animals like the food they know, and they tend to avoid unfamiliar food.

32 Multiple Neural Processes Control EatingThe hypothalamus is the brain structure that most influences eating Damage dramatically changes eating behavior and body weight Hyperphagia Aphagia Eating Disorders: Students are invariably interested in eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. If time permits, describe one or both of these disorders and the impact of culture and the media on the development of these disorders. For additional information, see the following sites:

33 Multiple Neural Processes Control EatingBrain structures other than the hypothalamus are also involved in eating behavior: Prefrontal (sweetness, saltiness; potential reward value) and limbic system (craving triggered by images of good food) Gourmand syndrome

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35 What Factors Motivate Sexual Behavior?Biological Factors Influence Sexual Behavior Cultural Scripts and Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Interactions Mating Strategies Differ between the Sexes People Differ in Sexual Orientation

36 Learning Objectives Compare biological, cultural, and evolutionary perspectives on sexual behavior. Describe the human sexual response cycle.

37 What Factors Motivate Sexual Behavior?Sex drives vary substantially among individuals and across circumstances and can be explained by individual differences and by society’s dominating influence over how and when individuals engage in sexual activity Kinsey

38 Biological Factors Influence Sexual BehaviorThe sexual response cycle: A predictable pattern of physical and psychological responses Occur in four stages with female responses being more variable than males’: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

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40 Biological Factors Influence Sexual BehaviorHormones: In nonhuman animals, hormones profoundly influence sexual activity Hormones affect human sexual behavior in two ways: They influence physical development of the brain and body Through motivation, they activate reproductive behavior

41 Biological Factors Influence Sexual BehaviorIn men and women, testosterone—a type of androgen—is involved in sexual functioning: Males need a certain amount of testosterone to be able to engage in sex The more testosterone women have, the more likely they are to have sexual thoughts and desires Oxytocin may promote feelings of love between partners

42 Biological Factors Influence Sexual BehaviorNeurotransmitters Sexual stimulation leads to nitric oxide production, which then promotes blood flow to both the penis and the clitoris and subsequently plays an important role in sexual arousal, especially penile erections. Serotonin

43 Biological Factors Influence Sexual BehaviorMenstrual cycle: In men, hormones are released at the same rate over time In women, the release of hormones varies according to a cycle that repeats itself approximately every 28 days—the menstrual cycle Women evaluate men differently across the menstrual cycle

44 Biological Factors Influence Sexual BehaviorNeural correlates of viewing erotica: Viewing erotica activates reward regions in the brain, such as various limbic structures This effect is greatest for men, who have higher blood levels of testosterone

45 Cultural Scripts and Cultural Rules Shape Sexual InteractionsSexual scripts are cognitive beliefs about how a sexual episode should be enacted In North America, the sexual script involves initial flirtation through nonverbal actions, the male initiating physical contact, the female controlling whether sexual activity takes place, and refusals typically being verbal and direct

46 Cultural Scripts and Cultural Rules Shape Sexual InteractionsDouble standard: Certain activities (such as premarital or casual sex) are morally and socially acceptable for men but not for women Has the Double Standard Changed? Popp (2003) conducted a review of research conducted in this area between 1981 and Her entire study is available online but her conclusions suggest that the double standard continues to exist but has been moderated by changes in society. She reports that “women may be judged more negatively than men for having had sex with many partners in the past, having sex outside of a committed relationship, or for having sexual experience at an early age.” The complete study may be viewed at:

47 Cultural Scripts and Cultural Rules Shape Sexual InteractionsSex differences in sexual motive: Greater male motivation for sexual activity and sexual variety occurs in all cultures Erotic plasticity refers to the extent that sex drive can be shaped by social, cultural, and situational factors Evidence suggests that women have higher erotic plasticity than men Sexual strategies theory Empathy and Systemizing Quotient: Simon Baron-Cohen argues that male and female brains differ and that these differences can be seen in terms of their scores on empathy and systemizing. Ask your students to complete these tests and bring their results to class. Discuss the findings and how much such differences might be related to cultural factors versus biological factors. Online at:

48 When men and women were propositioned by an attractive stranger of the opposite sex, both sexes were equally likely to accept a date. Men were much more willing than women to agree to have sex or to go home with the stranger.

49 Mating Strategies Differ between the SexesMen and women share in many of the perceptions of characteristics of the ideal mate: attractive, kind, honest, good-natured Men are more concerned with physical appearance and women are more concerned with status A finding confirmed across 37 cultures, and supportive of an evolutionary viewpoint Choosing a Mate: In the text, women were described as much more likely to consider status in choosing a mate whereas men were much more influenced by physical attractiveness. Ask students to discuss to develop their own lists of what they would prefer in a partner. How does their list match what is in the text? Does it matter if their partner is same-sex rather than opposite-sex?

50 People Differ in Sexual OrientationFrom an evolutionary perspective, homosexuality appears to make little sense One evolutionary theory is that lesbians and gays often act as “spare” parents to their siblings’ offspring Prior to 1973, homosexuality was officially viewed as a psychiatric disorder Sexual Paraphilias: There are numerous sexual paraphilias that could be discussed in this section. Perhaps one of the most interesting would be pedophilia – sexual arousal to prepubescent children. It may be important to note that many of those who are pedophiles view it as a sexual orientation no different than heterosexuality or homosexuality. For additional information about pedophilia, try these Web sites:

51 People Differ in Sexual OrientationExposure to hormones, especially androgens, in the prenatal environment might play some role in sexual orientation Discovery of a size difference or activation difference in any one part of the brain (such as the hypothalamus) cannot establish whether this area determines sexual orientation Correlation does not equal causation

52 People Differ in Sexual OrientationDaryl Bem: People are attracted to what is different Because the opposite sex is different, it becomes attractive for most people For some children, peers of their own sex seem different, so members of the same sex ultimately become erotic

53 People Differ in Sexual OrientationBiological processes play some role in sexual orientation Sexual orientation is not easy to change No good evidence exists that sexual orientation can be changed through therapy Same-Sex Marriage: In the 2008 election, California voted to deny same-sex marriages in their state. Ask students to discuss the implications of such laws. What is the solution to this issue?

54 How Are Emotions Adaptive?Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion Emotions Serve Cognitive Functions Critical Thinking Skill: Recognizing and Correcting for Belief Persistence in Your Own Thinking and in That of Others Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal Relations

55 Learning Objectives Summarize the ways culture and gender affect the expression of emotions. Provide examples of emotional states and explain how they might have an adaptive function.

56 How Are Emotions Adaptive?Emotion (or affect) refers to feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs Negative and positive experiences guide behavior that increases the probability of surviving and reproducing. Emotions are adaptive because they prepare and guide behaviors Historical Perspective on Emotions: Providing a historical background to the stud of emotions can be informative to students. A useful site from which you could pick and choose what you wish to present can be found at:

57 Facial Expressions Communicate EmotionInfants are capable of a wide range of emotion through facial expressions The lower half of the face may be more important in communicating emotion But when only the mouth or eyes are presented, people identify emotions more accurately using the eyes Recognition of Facial Expressions and Asperger’s Syndrome: Individuals diagnosed with Asperger’s frequently have difficulty recognizing facial expressions. Describe Asperger’s and the types of problems these individuals experience with forming relationships.

58 Facial Expressions Communicate EmotionFacial expressions across cultures: There is cross-cultural congruence in identifying some facial expressions Research suggests that some facial expressions are universal and therefore likely biologically based Face Research: FaceResearch.org allows participation in several online psychology experiments. Many of these could be used in class, or students could be asked to try these outside of class:

59 Facial Expressions Communicate EmotionDisplay rules and gender: Display rules govern how and when emotions are exhibited These rules are learned through socialization and dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations Gender differences exist Women more likely to express emotions except for those related to dominance Gender Differences in Emotional Expression: The text describes women as more emotionally expressive than men for all emotions except dominance. Inform the students that women present a higher prevalence of internalizing problems, such as affective and anxiety disorders, while men have higher rates of some personality disorders, such as antisocial personality disorder and substance abuse (Simon, 2002). Ask students to discuss whether differences in emotional expression could be part of the reason for these differences.

60 Emotions Serve Cognitive FunctionsPeople’s moods can alter ongoing mental processes Psychological scientists generally acknowledge that it is unrealistic to separate emotion from cognition Emotional Intelligence: The notion of emotional intelligence (EI), popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995), has been embraced by the public. There are several sites that can provide a general overview of this construct, critiques, and possible methods of measuring EI. Possible resources include:

61 Emotions Serve Cognitive FunctionsDecision making: Emotions are heuristic guides Risk judgments are strongly influenced by current feelings When cognitions and emotions are in conflict, emotions typically have more impact on decisions Affect-as-information theory

62 Emotions Serve Cognitive FunctionsSomatic markers: Damasio has suggested that reasoning and decision making are guided by the emotional evaluation of an action’s consequences (somatic marker theory) Gut feeling Those with frontal lobe damage do not report such somatic markers

63 Critical Thinking SkillRecognizing and Correcting for Belief Persistence in Your Own Thinking and in That of Others Belief persistence is the tendency to hold onto beliefs even when they are questionable or proved wrong Be open to examining all sides of an issue fairly and be willing to alter beliefs when evidence supports the change

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65 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal RelationsRecent theories have reconsidered interpersonal emotions in view of humans’ evolutionary need to belong to social groups Social emotions may be important for maintaining social bonds

66 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal RelationsGuilt strengthens social bonds: Guilt prevents people from doing things that would harm their relationships Displays of guilt demonstrate that people care Guilt can be used to manipulate others Socialization is more important than biology in determining how children experience guilt Should Children Be Made to Feel Guilty? In the text, the adaptive value of guilt is discussed. However, parents are frequently warned not to induce guilt in their children as it might increase stress or even lead to depression. Following student discussion, it may be useful to introduce the concepts of predispositional guilt (tendency to experience guilt in relation to events) and chronic guilt (unalleviated), explaining that chronic, unalleviated guilt seems to be most associated with depression.

67 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal RelationsEmbarrassment and blushing: Blushing rectifies interpersonal awkwardness and restores social bonds after a transgression Communicates a realization of interpersonal errors, thereby repairing and maintaining relationships

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69 How Do People Experience Emotions?Emotions Have a Subjective Component Emotions Have a Physiological Component Emotions Have a Cognitive Component People Regulate Their Moods

70 Learning Objectives Differentiate between primary and secondary emotions. Compare the three main theories of emotion—James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and two-factor— and provide an example of each. Describe the major physiological components of emotion.

71 Emotions Have a Subjective ComponentEmotions are subjective – we feel them Emotions can range from intense (mood disorders) to nonexistent (alexithymic) Positive Psychology: Martin Seligman has almost singlehandedly created the study of positive psychology; that is, the scientific study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. You can find a great deal of information about this topic that would be of interest to students on his Web site:

72 Emotions Have a Subjective ComponentDistinguishing among types of emotions: Basic or primary emotions are evolutionarily adaptive, shared across cultures, and associated with specific biological and physical states They include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and happiness—and possibly surprise and contempt Secondary emotions are blends of primary emotions; they include remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation

73 Emotions Have a Subjective ComponentCircumplex model: Emotions are arranged in a circle around the intersections of two core dimensions of affect Maps emotions according to valence and activation Negative and positive affect are independent—people can experience both kinds of emotions simultaneously

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75 Emotions Have a Physiological ComponentEmotions are associated with physical changes The James-Lange theory of emotion Emotion is the result of perceiving physical changes The facial feedback hypothesis Facial expressions trigger the experience of emotions The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Emotions and physical reaction happen at the same time

76 The theories differ not only in their relative emphases on physiology and on cognition but also in terms of when an emotional state is determined.

77 Emotions Have a Physiological ComponentAmygdala: Processes the emotional significance of stimuli and generates immediate emotional and behavioral reaction The Thrill of Horror Movies: Why should watching a horror movie that scares us be enjoyable? For information on how the amygdala may play a role in our response to such movies, see:

78 Emotions Have a Physiological ComponentInformation reaches the amygdala along two separate pathways Sensory information travels quickly through the thalamus to the amygdala for priority processing Sensory material travels from the thalamus to the sensory cortex, where the information is scrutinized in greater depth before it is passed along to the amygdala

79 The Emotional Brain Exercise

80 (a) The two most important brain structures for processing emotion are the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. (b) There are two pathways for assessing and responding to emotion-producing stimuli.

81 Emotions Have a Physiological ComponentIncreased activity in the amygdala during an emotional event is associated with improved long-term memory for that event Researchers believe the amygdala modifies how the hippocampus consolidates memory, especially memory for fearful events Damage to the amygdala can result in social impairments

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83 Emotions Have a Physiological ComponentPrefrontal cortex: Cerebral asymmetry Davidson has shown that unequal activation of the left and right hemispheres is associated with specific emotional states Greater activation of the right prefrontal cortex is associated with negative affect Greater activation of the left hemisphere is associated with positive affect

84 Emotions Have a Cognitive ComponentTwo-factor theory of emotion A situation evokes a physiological response, such as arousal, and a cognitive interpretation, or emotion label When people experience arousal, they initiate a search for its source

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86 Emotions Have a Cognitive ComponentPeople can misattribute the source of emotional states When people misidentify the source of their arousal, it is called misattribution of arousal Excitation transfer occurs when residual physiological arousal caused by one event is transferred to a new stimulus Misattribution of Arousal: Schnall, Abrahamson, and Laird (2002) propose that premenstrual syndrome may partially arise from misinterpretation of hormone-induced bodily changes. Ask students to discuss this possibility in small groups. It may be interesting to create some all female and all male groups for this discussion. After discussion, review the results of the 2002 study and Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion.

87 People Regulate Their MoodsVarious strategies people use to regulate their emotions: Putting themselves into certain situations while avoiding others Focusing on certain aspects of the situation Reappraising the events in more neutral terms Humor Laughter stimulates endocrine secretion, improves the immune system, and stimulates the release of hormones, catecholamines, and endorphins Positive Health Benefits of Laughter: Numerous research studies have explored the relationship between laughter and health. Several online sources for information you could add to your lecture include:

88 People Regulate Their MoodsSuppression and rumination: Thought suppression Attempts to not feel or respond to the emotion Very difficult and can lead to a rebound effect Rumination Thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings Prolongs the mood and impedes more successful strategies such as distracting oneself or focusing on solutions for the problem Regulation of Emotion: Ask students, either working in small groups or as part of a larger class discussion, to discuss how they regulate their own emotions. This works best by choosing only one or two emotions for students to discuss; anger and sadness/depression work well for this discussion. Ask students to share what steps they take when they are angry or sad/depressed. This can lead to a good discussion of the impact of stress and effective and ineffective coping strategies.