1 Motivation and EmotionChapter Eight Motivation and Emotion

2 Motivation and EmotionMotivation: Biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior. Emotion: a psychological state involving subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral or expressive response.

3 Motivation and EmotionThere are three basic characteristics commonly associated with motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity. Activation is demonstrated by initiation or production of behavior. Intensity is seen in the greater vigor of the response that usually accompanies motivated behavior. Persistence is demonstrated by continued efforts or determination to achieve a particular goal.

4 Motivational Concepts and TheoriesInstinct Theories People are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of evolutionary programming. In the 1920s, instinct theories had fallen out of favor as an explanation of human motivation, primarily because of the the theories lacked explanatory power. The general idea that human behaviors are innate and genetically influenced did remain important. Sharon King Grimm

5 James’s List of Human InstinctsAttachment Resentment Fear Curiosity Disgust Shyness Rivalry Sociability Greediness Bashfulness Suspicion Secretiveness Hunting Cleanliness Play Modesty Shame Love Anger Parental Love Table 8.1 In his famous text, Principles of Psychology, William James (1890) devoted a lengthy chapter to the topic of instinct. With an air of superiority, James noted that “no other mammal, not even the monkey, shows so large an array of instincts” as humans.

6 Drive Theories: Biological Needs as Motivatorsre replaced by drive theories. Instinct theories were replaced by drive theories. Drive A need or internal motivational state Drive Theories Behavior motivated by desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs and desire to restore homeostasis Drive State Created by unmet biological needs Drives are triggered by internal mechanisms of homeostasis Homeostasis Body monitors and maintains internal states Tendency to reach or maintain equilibrium Cannot explain all drives Instinct theories were replaced by drive theories. Body monitors and maintains internal states, such as body temperature and energy supplies, at relatively constant levels; tendency to reach or maintain equilibrium

7 Incentive Motivation: Goal Objects as MotivatorsIncentive theories Behavior is motivated by “pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition. Incentive theories based on learning principles from Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Tolman. Tolman stressed importance of cognitive factors and expectation of goals in motivation.

8 Arousal Theory: Optimal Stimulation as a MotivatorPeople experience both very high levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal as being quite unpleasant. When arousal is too low, we experience boredom and become motivated to increase arousal. When arousal is too high, we seek to reduce arousal in a less-stimulating environment. People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Supported by Sensation-seeking behavior Animals seek out novel environmental stimulation

9 Arousal Theory: Sensation SeekingThe optimal level of arousal varies from person to person; it is especially evident in sensation seekers, who find the heightened arousal of novel experiences very pleasurable. People who rank high on the dimension of sensation seeking have a need for varied, complex, and unique sensory experiences. Sensation Seeking: Extreme Skiing

10 Humanistic Theory: Human Potential as a MotivatorRogers and Maslow Emphasized importance of psychological and cognitive factors in motivation Proposed that people are motivated to realize their personal potential Developed the most famous humanistic model of motivation (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) Seeking Stimulation Like humans, animals are also motivated to seek out stimulation and explore novel environments. Harry Harlow (1953) found that arousal was a powerful motive. These young monkeys are trying to open a complicated lock, despite the lack of an incentive or reward for their behavior.

11 Hunger and Eating Terms to LearnHunger: Biological motive Eating behavior: Complex interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors Glucose: Simple sugar that provides energy and is primarily produced by the conversion of carbohydrates and fats; commonly called blood sugar. Insulin: Hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood levels of glucose and eating behavior Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The rate at which the body, when it is at rest, uses energy for vital functions, such as heartbeat and respiration Baseline body weight: Cluster of genetic and environmental factors that cause a person’s weight to settle within a given range Hunger: Biological motive Eating behavior: Complex interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors Baseline body weight—cluster of genetic and environmental factors that cause a person’s weight to settle within a given range

12 Delicious or Disgusting?The need to eat is a universal human motive. However, culture influences what we eat, when we eat, and how we eat. High in protein and readily available, insects are standard fare in many countries. Would you order grasshoppers or caterpillars for lunch? This upscale restaurant in Mexico City serves chapulines (grasshoppers, left) and gusanos del maguey (caterpillars).

13 Energy Homeostasis CALORIES CONSUMED = CALORIES EXPENDEDFood is broken down by enzymes, absorbed by intestines. Glucose, or blood sugar, is converted as a source of energy. Insulin helps control glucose and regulates eating and weight. When your caloric intake exceeds the amount of calories expended for energy, you experience positive energy balance. When you diet or fast, a negative energy balance occurs. Basal metabolic rate is resting rate Adipose tissue (body fat) is main source of stored calories Regulatory process called energy homeostasis helps you maintain your baseline body weight

14 Physiological Signals That Regulate EatingSlight drop in blood glucose Slight increase in insulin—30 minutes before eating Appetite stimulation from hormone ghrelin Hormone is manufactured in stomach lining Stimulates secretion of growth hormone by pituitary gland in brain Stimulates appetite Blood levels of ghrelin rise sharply before and fall abruptly after meals

15 Psychological Factors that Trigger EatingClassical conditioning Time of day at which you normally eat (conditioned stimulus) elicits reflexive internal physiological changes (conditioned response) Blood levels of insulin, glucose, and ghrelin change Increased body temperature; decreased metabolism Internal physiological changes increase your sense of hunger; stimuli can be associated with anticipation of eating Operant conditioning Preference for certain tastes: sweet, salty, and fatty (positive incentive value)

16 Satiation Signals: When to stop eatingStretch receptors in stomach communicate sensory information Signals from stomach (cholecystokinin [CCK]) slowing rate at which stomach empties Sensory-specific satiety: reduced desire to continue consuming a particular food; now we want dessert!

17 Long-Term Satiation Signals: When to Stop EatingLeptin Hormone that indicates amount of fat in body; receptors in hypothalamus, stomach, and gut As leptin level in brain increases, food intake is reduced Increased leptin levels also intensify the satiety-producing effects of CCK Signals indicating amount of food molecules in blood Insulin-increased brain levels of insulin are associated with a reduction in food intake Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neurotransmitter regulated by leptin and insulin; increased brain levels of neuropeptide Y trigger eating behavior, reduce body metabolism, and promote fat storage Click to reveal bullets.

18 Regulating Appetite and Body WeightMultiple signals interact to regulate appetite and energy expenditure so that a stable body weight is maintained over time. Appetite is stimulated (+) by increased levels of ghrelin and neuropeptide Y. Appetite is suppressed (-) by increased levels of leptin, insulin, and CCK.

19 Excess Weight and ObesitySet-Point Theory The body has an optimal body weight that it defends from becoming higher or lower by regulating feelings of hunger and body metabolism. Settling-Point Models Body weight settles at a balance between energy intake and expenditure. Settling-point weight will stay relatively stable as long as factors that influence food consumption and energy expenditure do not change.

20 Excess Weight and ObesityPrevalence More than two-thirds of American adults and almost one-third of children are above their healthy weight. Worldwide, one and a half billion adults are overweight. Percentage of overweight people increases throughout adulthood, peaking in fifth and sixth decades of life. Healthy weight determined by Body mass index (BMI): Numerical scale indicating height in relation to weight Obesity: Condition characterized by excessive body fat and a BMI equal to or greater than 30.0 Overweight: Condition characterized by BMI between 25.0 and 29.9 Many different factors contribute to high rates of overweight and obesity Thin ideal is pervasive in American culture

21 Factors Involved in Becoming OverweightMultiple factors affect how much people eat and how the calories are metabolized. “Supersize It” syndrome: overeating Positive incentive value: highly palatable foods Cafeteria diet effect: more choice, more consumed Basal metabolic rate (BMR) Sedentary lifestyle Too little sleep Individual differences and lifespan changes Basal metabolic rate (BMR): individual differences and lifespan change: As BMR decreases with age, less food is required to meet your basic energy needs Too little sleep: disrupts hunger hormones; blood levels of appetite-suppressing hormone leptin fall; appetite-increasing hormone ghrelin soars Positive incentive value: anticipated pleasures of highly palatable foods “Supersize It” syndrome: caloric intake has increased nearly 10 percent for men and 7 percent for women Cafeteria diet effect: when offered a variety of highly palatable foods, such as at a cafeteria or an all-you-can-eat buffet, we consume more Sedentary lifestyles: 1 in 5 persons worldwide leads a sedentary lifestyle Sedentary lifestyles are more common in urbanized, developed countries Four out of 10 American adults never exercise

22 Factors Involved in Obesity: Interaction of Genetics and EnvironmentPeople with a family history of obesity are two to three times more likely to become obese than people with no such family history. Obesity also occurs in about 30 percent of children with parents who are of normal weight. High-risk environment for obesity and metabolic factors (leptin resistance) after obesity influence ongoing risk. Key phrase here is susceptibility to obesity Human body is much more effective at vigorously defending against weight loss than it is at protecting against weight.

23 Dopamine Receptors and Obesity: Role of Pleasure in Eating and ObesityLandmark study finds that obese individuals in the study had significantly fewer dopamine receptors than the normal-weight individuals. Among obese people in the study, the number of dopamine receptors decreased as BMI increased (Wang and colleagues). People ate more to compensate for reduced brain rewards; overeating reduced the dopamine reward system levels even further; vicious circle ensues. It could be that compulsive or binge eating compensates for reduced dopamine function by stimulating the brain’s reward system.

24 Can overeating lead to brain changes in humans?Stice and colleagues: fMRI research Response of overweight women to milkshake consumption was related to amount of weight gain between trials. Implication is that people eat more to compensate for reduced brain rewards. Obesity can be a vicious circle!

25 How accurate are media images of human sexuality?Multiple factors are involved in understanding human sexuality. Psychologists consider the drive to have sex a basic human motive. How accurate are media images of human sexuality? Sexual themes and images are often used to sell products, market movies, and boost TV ratings.

26 Human Sexuality: The Stages of Human Sexual ResponseMasters and Johnson’s findings indicated that the human sexual response could be described as a cycle with four stages. Critics thought their research had violated “sacred ground” and dehumanized sexuality. However, Masters and Johnson were also praised for advancing the understanding of human sexuality and dispelling misconceptions. Pioneers of Sex Research: William Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925–2013) In 1966 Masters and Johnson, shown here interviewing a couple, broke new ground in the scientific study of sexual behavior when they published Human Sexual Response. In that book they provided the first extensive laboratory data on the anatomy and physiology of the male and female sexual that was translated into over 30 languages. Some critics felt the Masters and Johnson research had violated “sacred ground” and dehumanized sexuality. But others applauded Human Sexual Response for advancing the understanding of human sexuality and dispelling misconceptions. The techniques they developed are still widely used in sex therapy today. Masters and Johnson observed hundreds of individuals engaged in more than 10,000 episodes of sexual activity in their laboratory.

27 Human Sexuality: Stages of Human Sexual ResponseStage 1: Excitement the beginning of sexual arousal; preparation for intercourse Stage 2: Plateau physical arousal builds Stage 3: Orgasm third and shortest phase of the sexual response cycle Subjective experience of orgasm is similar in men and women—and very positive Males ejaculate, females experience vaginal contractions Stage 4: Resolution arousal slowly subsides and returns to normal levels

28 The Male and Female Sexual Response CyclesPattern 1 shows multiple orgasms. Pattern 2 shows sexual arousal that reaches the plateau stage but not orgasm, followed by a slow resolution. Pattern 3 depicts brief reductions in arousal during the excitement stage, followed by rapid orgasm and resolution. The figure on the right depicts the most typical male sexual response, in which orgasm is followed by a refractory period. Source: Research from Masters & Johnson (1966). The figure on the left depicts the three basic variations of the female sexual response.

29 What Motivates Sexual Behavior?Survival of the species Hormonal changes in the female (lower animals) Learning and environmental influences (higher species) Sex is necessary for the survival of the species but not of the individual Lower animals are motivated by hormonal changes in the female Estrus = frantic desire Higher species less influenced by hormones and more by learning and environmental influences Sexual activity can occur any time Defines social functions, cements relationships Sexual motivation is biologically influenced by the levels of the hormone testosterone in the body for both sexes Image information The Bonobos of the Congo Bonobos demonstrate a wide variety of sexual interactions, including face-to-face copulation, kissing, and sexual interaction among same-sex pairs (Fruth & Hohmann, 2006; Parish & de Waal, 2000). Sexual behavior is not limited to reproduction; it seems to play an important role in maintaining peaceful relations among members of the bonobo group. As Frans de Waal (1995) wrote, “For these animals, sexual behavior is indistinguishable from social behavior.” The Bonobos of the Congo. Their sexual behavior is not limited to reproduction; it seems to play an important role in maintaining peaceful relations among members of the bonobo group.

30 Sexual Orientation: The Elusive Search for an ExplanationAccording to the most recent estimates, about 7% of women and 5% of men report having engaged in homosexual behavior at some point. Sexual orientation Heterosexual Homosexual Gay Lesbian Bisexual Sexual orientation refers to whether a person is attracted to members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes. Sexual orientation: direction of a person's emotional and erotic attractions Heterosexual: sexual attraction to the opposite sex Homosexual sexual attraction to the same sex Gay: typically used to describe male homosexuals Lesbian: typically used to describe female homosexuals Bisexual: sexual attraction to both sexes l

31 What Determines Sexual Orientation?Genetics: A close degree of genetic relationship is predictive of homosexuality. Prenatal environment: The more older brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be homosexual. Brain structure: Differences are found in the hypothalamus and amygdala of homosexual and heterosexual men Genetics contributes to homosexual orientation in both men and women, although to a much lesser degree in women than men Successive male children might trigger some sort of immune response

32 What Determines Sexual Orientation?Other findings Homosexuality was not a result of disturbed or abnormal family relationships. Sexual orientation is determined before adolescence and before beginning of sexual activity. Sexual orientation may be established as early as age 6. Once orientation is established, whether heterosexual or homosexual, it is highly resistant to change. Homosexuality is no longer considered a sexual disorder by clinical psychologists or psychiatrists (American Psychiatric Association). Several researchers now believe that sexual orientation is established as early as age 6. Evidence suggests that male and female homosexuals are less likely to have followed the typical pattern of gender-specific behaviors in childhood including style of dress, choice of toys and playmates. It is a mistake to assume that homosexuals have deliberately chosen their sexual orientation any more than heterosexuals have.

33 Psychological Needs as MotivatorsAccording to motivation theories of Maslow and of Deci and Ryan, psychological needs must be fulfilled for optimal human functioning Are there universal psychological needs? Are we internally or externally motivated to satisfy psychological needs? What psychological needs must be satisfied for optimal human functioning?

34 Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsAbraham Maslow believed that people are innately motivated to satisfy a progression of needs, beginning with the most basic physiological needs. Once the needs at a particular level are satisfied, the individual is motivated to satisfy the needs at the next level, steadily progressing upward. The ultimate goal is self-actualization, the realization of personal potential. Source: Research from Maslow (1970).

35 Maslow’s Characteristics of Self-Actualized PeopleRealism and acceptance Spontaneity Problem centering Autonomy Continued freshness of appreciation Peak experiences Realism and acceptance Self-actualized people have accurate perceptions of themselves, others, and external reality. Spontaneity Self-actualized people are spontaneous, natural, and open in their behavior and thoughts. However, they can easily conform to conventional rules and expectations when necessary. Problem centering Self-actualized people focus on problems outside themselves. They often dedicate themselves to a larger purpose in life. Autonomy Although they accept and enjoy other people, self-actualized individuals have a strong need for privacy and independence. Continued freshness of appreciation Self-actualized people continue to appreciate the simple pleasures of life with awe and wonder. Peak experiences Self-actualized people commonly have peak experiences, or moments of intense ecstasy, wonder, and awe during which their sense of self is lost or transcended. Source : Research from Maslow (1970).

36 Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT)SDT proposes that people are actively growth- oriented and that they move toward a unified sense of self and integration with others. Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Three innate and universal psychological needs must be satisfied. Autonomy Competence Relatedness Need for social relationships is fundamental psychological motive. A person who has satisfied needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness actively internalizes and integrates different external motivators as part of his or her identity and values. In a supportive environment, people pursue activities that satisfy needs. This enhances psychological growth and intrinsic motivation. When people have satisfied needs, they actively internalize and integrate different extrinsic motivations as part of identity and personal values. Autonomy: Need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals so that you are in harmony with one’s own interests and values Relatedness: Need to feel attached to others and experience senses of belonging, security, and intimacy Intrinsic motivation: Desire to engage in tasks that person finds inherently satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging Extrinsic motivation: External influences on behavior, such as rewards, social evaluations, rules, and responsibilities

37 Maslow and Self-ActualizationMaslow’s Contributions Encouraged psychology to focus on motivation and the development of psychologically healthy people Critiques Vague and almost impossible to define in a way that would allow it to be tested scientifically Initial studies on self-actualization were based on limited samples with questionable reliability Most people do not experience or achieve self-actualization Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s hierarchical division of motivation into levels that progress from basic physical needs to psychological needs to self-fulfillment needs. Abraham Maslow

38 Competence and Achievement MotivationCompetence Motivation Displayed when people strive to use their skills to be capable and exercise control Achievement Motivation The drive to excel, succeed, or outperform others at some task Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Projective personality test that involves creating stories about ambiguous scenes (Murray and colleagues) Need for achievement measures (McClelland) Power motivation

39 Motivation and CultureIndividualistic cultures focus on personal, individual success, rather than on a group’s success; is closely linked to success in competitive tasks. Collectivistic cultures’ orientation is toward social harmony and promoting one’s group and/or family. Does achievement motivation look the same in every culture? Comparing statements by Japanese and American athletes during the Olympics, Hazel Rose Markus found that Japanese emphasized the importance of their supportive relationships, but Americans tended to see their wins as an individual achievement (Markus & others, 2006). Here, Japanese track star Satomi Kubokura celebrates after winning a gold medal in the 19thAsian Athletics Championship in Kobe, Japan.

40 Emotion Emotion Complex psychological state that involves subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response Mood Milder emotional state that is more general and pervasive, such as gloominess or contentment Two friends share news, smiles, and laughter as they patiently wait their turns at the medical clinic in an isolated village in Tsum Valley, Nepal. Emotions play an important role in relationships and social communication. The Many Functions of Emotion

41 Functions of Emotions Early psychologists considered emotions to be disruptive forces that interfered with rational behavior. Today’s views Emotion moves us to act, set goals, and make rational decisions. People who have lost the capacity to feel emotion because of damage to specific brain areas tend to make disastrous decisions. Emotional intelligence levels influence reasoning and decision-making. Emotional Intelligence involves ability to manage and understand one’s own emotional experiences, as well as be attuned to the emotions of others

42 Evolutionary Explanation of EmotionDarwin: Emotions reflect evolutionary adaptations to problems of survival and reproduction; they inform others about our individual states Today: Emotions aid in solving adaptive problems posed by the environment. Fear Anger Love Disgust Fear prompts us to flee an attacker or evade a threat Anger moves us to turn and fight a rival Love propels us to seek out a mate and care for our offspring Disgust prompts us to avoid a sickening stimulus Most emotion researchers today agree that the six emotions shown above best represent the universal set of basic emotions. Other possible candidates are contempt or disdain, pride, and excitement. Image information Darwin and Emotion Published in 1872, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals was the first scientific book to use the new technology of photography. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to systematically study emotional expressions. He hoped to show the continuity of emotional expressions among nonhuman animals and humans—additional evidence for his evolutionary theory.

43 Subjective Experience of EmotionEmotion researchers agree there are a limited number of basic emotions and responses. Each basic emotion represents a sequence of responses that is innate and hard-wired in the brain. People often experience mixed emotions, in which very different emotions are felt simultaneously or in rapid succession.

44 Culture, Gender, and Emotional ExperienceFundamental dimensions of emotion Degree to which the emotion is pleasant or unpleasant Level of activation, or arousal, associated with emotion Cultural variations in classification Japanese: Added interpersonal engagement to other two Gender: Gender similarity in emotional frequency and experience, but difference in expression of emotions Gender Both men and women tend to view women as more emotional Men and women do not differ in their self-ratings of experience of emotions, but do differ in their expression of emotion Cultural variations do exist Interpersonal engagement reflects idea that some emotions result from your connections and interactions with other people Japanese participants rated anger and shame as being about the same in terms of unpleasantness and activation, but rated shame as being much higher than anger on the dimension of interpersonal engagement; collectivist culture

45 Neuroscience of EmotionEmotions are associated with distinct patterns of responses by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system and in the brain. Different emotions stimulate different responses. Differing patterns of sympathetic nervous system activation are universal. Emotions are associated with distinct patterns of responses by the sympathetic nervous system and in the brain. Sympathetic nervous system is aroused by emotions (fight-or-flight response) Different emotions stimulate different responses Fear: Decrease in skin temperature (cold feet) Anger: Increase in skin temperature (hot under the collar Differing patterns of sympathetic nervous system activation are universal, Hard-wired biological responses to basic emotions

46 Detecting Lies Does a polygraph detect lies? Potential problemsNo. It measures physiological changes associated with emotions; technique based on assumption that lying is accompanied by anxiety, fear, and stress. Potential problems There is no unique physiological arousal pattern for lying. Some people can lie without experiencing anxiety or arousal. Innocent people may be fearful or anxious when asked incriminating questions. Interpretation of polygraphs can be highly subjective. Microexpressions may produce nonverbal cues. Microexpressions: Fleeting indicators of deceit Ekman (2003): Deception associated with a variety of nonverbal cues Fleeting facial expressions, vocal cues, and nervous body movements Microexpressions last about 1/25 of a second

47 The Emotional Brain: Fear and the AmygdalaAmygdala: Part of limbic system Activates when something is threatening, seeing fearful faces, or hearing sounds related to fear Evaluates significance of stimuli and generates emotional responses as well as generates hormonal secretions and autonomic reactions that accompany strong emotions Rats with a damaged amygdala cannot be classically conditioned to acquire a fear response. Humans with a damaged amygdala have “psychic blindness”— an inability to recognize fear in the facial expressions and voices of others. Le Doux’s Model Two neural pathways for sensory information that project from thalamus One leads to cortex One leads directly to amygdala by passing cortex Thalamus – amygdala pathway – stimulates sympathetic nervous system

48 Mapping Emotions in the BodyParticipants were shown blank silhouettes of bodies and, in response to emotion-evoking words, images, or films, they were asked to color in the areas of their body where sensations became stronger or weaker. The body maps show regions where activation increased (warm colors) and decreased (cool colors) when each emotion was felt. While the number of participants is not large enough to draw sweeping conclusions, the results do hint that there may be culturally universal associations of specific emotions with specific body areas. Try this exercise yourself the next time you feel or happy or when you experience another strong emotion. Do the “body maps” found in this research agree with your own experience of different emotions? If you’d like to participate in the experiment, you can try it here: As expressions like “cold feet” or “butterflies in the stomach” reflect, emotions are often associated with physical sensations. Finnish psychologist Lauri Nummenmaa and his colleagues (2014) investigated this phenomenon in a clever study.

49 Activating the Amygdala: Direct and Indirect Neural PathwaysFear Circuits in the Brain Do you know what happens? Figure 8.5 Fear Circuits in the Brain When you’re faced with a potentially threatening stimulus—like a snake dangling from a stick—information arrives in the thalamus and is relayed simultaneously along two pathways. Crude, archetypal information rapidly travels the direct route to the amygdala, triggering an almost instantaneous fear response. More detailed information is sent along the pathway to the visual cortex, where the stimulus is interpreted. If the cortex determines that a threat exists, the information is relayed to the amygdala along the longer, slower pathway. The amygdala triggers other brain structures, such as the hypothalamus, which activate the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system’s release of stress hormones. Source: Research from LeDoux (1994a, 1994b).

50 Do Different Emotions Activate Different Brain Areas?Damasio and colleagues used PET imaging to study patterns of brain activation and deactivation while participants recalled emotionally charged memories. Sadness, happiness, anger, and fear produced distinctly different patterns. Sensory signals from the peripheral nervous system contributed to the overall subjective feeling of a particular emotion. Significant areas of brain activation are indicated in red, while significant areas of deactivation are indicated in purple Emotional memory triggered autonomic nervous system activity and physiological arousal before the volunteers signaled that they were subjectively “feeling” the target emotion. Areas of the somatosensory cortex, which processes sensory information from the skin, muscles, and internal organs, were also activated.

51 The Expression of EmotionDarwin (1872) Theorized that human emotional expressions are innate and culturally universal Ekman (1980) Estimates that the human face is capable of creating more than 7,000 different expressions Spontaneous facial expressions of children and young adults who were born blind do not differ from those of sighted children and adults. Ekman (1980) estimates the human face is capable of creating more than 7,000 different expressions. Each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression. Facial expressions are innate and “hard-wired” Display rules: Social and cultural rules that regulate emotional expression, especially facial expressions

52 The Expression of Emotion: Making FacesEkman and colleagues Coded different facial expressions by painstakingly analyzing the facial muscles involved in producing each expression. Precisely classified the facial expressions that characterize the basic emotions of happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust Concluded that facial expressions for the basic emotions are innate and probably hard-wired in the brain

53 Culture and Emotional ExpressionEkman Facial expressions for the basic emotions—happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust—are hard-wired into the brain and are the same across cultures. Basic emotions are biologically determined. Cultural conditioning, gender-role expectations, and other learning experiences shape how, when, and whether emotional responses are displayed.

54 Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory of emotionStimulus is perceived. Physiological and behavioral changes occur. These changes are experienced as a particular emotion. According to William James, we don’t tremble and run because we are afraid, we are afraid because we tremble and run. James believed that body signals trigger emotional experience. These signals include physiological arousal and feedback from the muscles involved in behavior.

55 James-Lange Theory of EmotionChallenged by Walter Cannon Body reactions are similar for many emotions, yet our subjective experience of various emotions is very different. Our emotional reaction to a stimulus is often faster than our physiological reaction. Artificially inducing physiological changes does not necessarily produce a related emotional experience. Individuals with spinal cord injuries report similar or stronger emotions.

56 James-Lange Theory of EmotionSupported By: PET scan: Each of the basic emotions produced a distinct pattern of brain activity Participants who were highly sensitive to their own internal body signals were more likely to experience anxiety and negative emotions Facial feedback hypothesis Expressing a specific emotion, especially facially, causes us to subjectively experience that emotion Botox injections can dampen emotional experience and the ability to perceive it

57 Turning Your Goals into RealityStrategies and suggestions that can help you get motivated, take action, and achieve your goals. Strengthen sense of self-efficacy Turn goals into actions Mentally rehearse and visualize the process Strengthening sense of self-efficacy Mastery experiences Social modeling or observational learning Turning goals into actions Form goal intention Create implementation intentions Mentally rehearse and visualize the process