1 People and Organisations The Meaning of Work and MotivationConnected to themes of Work and Home and How organisations affect our motivation and creativity
2 Key themes of module Themes of ModuleJoining an Organisation Working & Networking with different people and negotiating differences Work (Public life) and home (Private life) How organisations can affect our motivation
3 Themes explored through topicsIntroduction to module and Organisational Behaviour Introduction to Higher Education Learning and the Themes Joining an Organisation Group Dynamics and Informal Organisation Multiculturalism and Groups Perception and Fairness Personality and Organisational selection Working & Networking with different people and negotiating differences The meaning of work and motivation Stress and Resilience in Organisations Work (public life) and home (private life) Mechanistic Forms of Management and Organisational forms (Contemporary and historical roots) New emerging Organisational forms and ethics How organisations can affect our motivation and creativity
4 Learning outcomes: Understand the meaning of motivationExplore some influential theories of motivation Start to think about some of the key challenges of motivation in an organisational context
5 The meaning of work work - a significant marker of our identity within society (Hughes, 1951) Why do we work? Societal imperative to work Religious work ethics Not working seen as deviant: “…the body becomes a useful force only if it is a productive body…” (Foucault and Rabinow, 1984: 173) School, family imperatives to work Employability skills
6 Challenge of Motivation in Organisations“People usually join an organisation to satisfy their own needs and wants, and so there is always a possibility that they will be more interested in achieving their own personal aims than the objectives laid down by a manager” (Rollinson, 2002:195)
7 What is Motivation? Motivation isthe willingness to exert high levels of effort (Stephen Robbins, 2012) a reflection of the reasons why people do things (Pettinger, 2000) The cognitive decision-making process through which goal-directed behaviour is initiated, energized, directed and maintained (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2017: 283) The professional processes that cause the arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary, goal-oriented actions (Sinding & Waldstrom, 2014: 188)
8 What initiates motivation?
9 A test
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11 What initiates motivation?Needs initiate motivation: extrinsic, intrinsic, social rewards Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to someone by another person. Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur naturally as a person works on a task. Social rewards --- comes from the feeling of being part of a group or team
12 Frederick Taylor 1856-1915 - Money (extrinsic)American. Trained as a mechanical engineer Develops ‘scientific management’ applying (eg) ‘time and motion’ studies to work Argues that financial motivation (salary/pay) makes people work harder Work organisation follows on from this (eg) assembly line car production
13 Motivation: all about money?Homo economicus Taylor: piece rates to motivate Ford: $5 day Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Motivation and pay – an unclear relationship Wiley 1997: top motivating factors alternate between wages, praise and interesting work SCELI survey (Rose, 1995) 68% work for financial reasons; 25% work for expressive reasons; 5% work for social reasons Social Change and Economic Life Initiative Surveys
14 The lottery question Would you give up your work?Would you give up working completely? UK – 63.8% would continue Japan – 93.4% would continue (Harpaz, 1989)
15 What channels intrinsic motivation? The role of PassionPassion and enthusiasm is a key component of self motivation “Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.” Central to organisational success Having passion at work affords people purpose. Without purpose, people drift through life underachieving. Often, that sense of under or non-achievement can eat at their sense of self-worth. Discuss in pairs some things you are passionate about and how you see them linked to careers/jobs in the future.
16 Q: What is David’s passion? What are his motivations of work?How we made our Millions - Peter Jones (The Dragons Den) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=foWMmY3xSuk Q: What is meant by passion for work? Share with your group members your passions and how you think they might link to work plans for the future. Read the running case: Triathlon man Q: What is David’s passion? What are his motivations of work?
17 What CHANNELS motivation? Career anchors (Edgar Schein):
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21 What CHANNELS motivation? Career anchors (Edgar Schein):Short video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QCv_wykCOrQ Long video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljEcnpjZs2M Technical/Functional Competence Managerial Competence Autonomy/Independence Security Entrepreneurship Sense of Service Pure Challenge Lifestyle Edgar Schein 1928-
22 What maintains motivation? – Social rewards ‘Hawthorne’ Experiments (1920s): Influence of Work Groups and human relations theory People are motivated by more than pay and conditions – many factors interrelate in the workplace eg role of informal groups and attention and leadership styles Many studies continued today with focus on social influences on motivation eg work groups, family, organisational culture, national culture
23 Pause for Thought: 10 mins in groupsThink of some of the most motivating environments you have been in – what characteristics did they have? What factors motivated your performance? How do they connect with the above theories on motivation? Or think about which module you are more willing to learn and what motivate you.
24 Types of motivation theoriesContent theories – extrinsic, intrinsic and social rewards Human needs and how people with different needs may respond to different work situations. Process theories – individual, subjective and changeable How people give meaning to rewards and make decisions on various work-related behaviors.
25 Content Theories Understanding what people want, need and desireMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs combines extrinsic, intrinsic, social rewards Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
26 Abraham Maslow 1908-1970 American psychologistDeveloped ‘Humanist Psychology’ Argues everyone has a strong desire to reach their maximum potential * Identifies human creativity as a source of great energy and motivation
27 Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs (A Theory of Human Motivation, 1943)
28 Insights from Maslow https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwa31A16OZI Individuals motivated differently depending on position within the hierarchy Takes account of different motivating factors, pay is just one of many potential motivators Shows an individual’s motivation is not fixed but changes over time More positive view of people as humans than carrot-and-stick Self-actualization recognizes the potential of people
29 King and Lawley : Maslow Lecture ActivityIn pairs please discuss the following exercise (10 mins):
30 Maslow Lecture Activity (From King and Lawley)In pairs please discuss the following exercise (10 mins):
31 Herzberg Two Factor TheoryFrederick Herzberg, The Motivation of Work, 1959: ‘hygiene’ factors and ‘motivators’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJ8ap4kWPxo Frederick Hertzberg
32 Herzberg Two Factor TheoryExtrinsic factors associated with environment surrounding the job Intrinsic factors associated with the job itself
33 Herzberg’s Hygiene and Motivational FactorsDissatisfiers Motivators Working Conditions Policies and Administrative Practices Salary and Benefits Supervision Status Job Security Co-workers Personal Life Recognition Achievement Advancement Growth Responsibility Job Challenge
34 De-motivating environmentsIllustration of some of Herzberg’s dissatisfiers: which ones do you notice? The Incredibles film extract
35 Stop -Think Critically!Critiques of Maslow and Herzberg Fail to account for individual differences/orientations Fail to link motivation to both satisfaction and performance at work Fails to take into account socio-cultural and professional differences. Very Western models.
36 A ubiquitous management theory but empirically unproven in the workplaceEncourages over-simplistic application in management theory Privileges an elitist, white, male, heterosexual view of the world? BUT Gupta (2011) validated Maslow and Herzberg’s ongoing value in the workplace
37 Motivating Jobs Through Job RedesignScientifically managed jobs: boring, repetitive, few skills utilized Job Enlargement: add more tasks of similar skill level to the job Job Enrichment: add more responsibility and autonomy to the job Horizontal Loading Vertical Loading
38 Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment: A Comparison(high) Enlarged Job Job enlargement adds more tasks at the same level of responsibility. Level of Responsibility (vertical job loading) Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 (high) Standard Job (low) Level of Responsibility (vertical job loading) (low) Number of Tasks (horizontal job loading) (high) (high) Task 1 Task 2 Enhanced Job Job enrichment adds more responsibility to the same number of tasks. Task 1 Task 2 (low) Level of Responsibility (vertical job loading) (low) Number of Tasks (horizontal job loading) (high) (low) (low) Number of Tasks (horizontal job loading) (high) 18
39 Process Theories Unlike content theories, process theories give a person a cognitive decision making role in selecting goals and the desired behaviours that will help them to achieve those goals. “Depends on the extent to which employees believe that they have control over the outcomes of their effort as well as the ability of the manager to identify the desired rewards, both of which vary across cultures” Adler (1997 p.163)
40 Process Theories Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964)Adam’s Equity Theory(1969) Locke’s Goal theory (1968)
41 Expectancy Theory Underlying principles of Expectancy Theory is that motivation is a function of the relationship between: Effort expended and perceived level of performance The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance The expected rewards (desired outcomes) are available.
42 Expectancy Theory (Vroom cited in Guerrier 1999)Humans as more calculating and not driven by needs: likelihood of outcome, attractiveness of outcome determines effort Motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes and these outcomes are valued by the individual. M motivation = E expectancy x I instrumentality x V valence Action -> Result -> rewards https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QSZxYotsUg8
43 Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom, 1964)Implications: A) variety of rewards B) valued by people as desirable C) allocation of rewards fair - achievable Victor Vroom
44 Application of Expectancy TheoryClarify expectancies between effort and performance and follow through with rewards. Pay for performance Stock option plans and other incentive programs Provide valued rewards Cafeteria-style benefits
45 Stop -Think Critically!Porter and Lawler (1968) suggest that ET only applies to behaviour that is under the voluntary control of the individual. Other variables such as abilities and traits may also affect performance. How is effort measured in order to determine rewards? Does it work in all cultures?
46 Adam’s - Equity Theory (1963 cited in Mullins 2010)People’s comparative behaviour Focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others. Does their level of input bring about an output that is perceived to be fair in comparison to others? What behaviours may be a consequence of inequality?
47 Locke’s Goal theory (1968) Motivation is influenced by the difficulty, specificity, and feedback of reaching your goals. Goals need to ne measurable. SMART – specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time-related Hard goals -> more satisfying -> more meaningful Helps give focus, and judge progress. (short-term or medium- term)
48 What makes a great workplace?WHO model of European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2013) : positive workplace has physical elements and psychological: Physical: offices, buildings, rest spaces Psychological: team spirit, open communication, work/life balance Google : until 2014 maintained its place for 5 years in ‘Great company to work for’ (Times Ranking/Fortune Magazine)
49 What makes a great workplace?Joseph (2015) 10 characteristics of a great workplace: Clear purpose Individual and teamwork possibilities Autonomy, Fairness, Innovation Open communication, Constructive feedback, Community spirit * Access to resources * Shared value systems
50 Some Contemporary Examples of Financial and Non-Financial motivation:The John Lewis Partnership. (Retail; John Lewis and Waitrose) John Lewis Happiness beats Profit Starbucks Coffee Starbucks free shares to employees Starbucks employees work in coffee plantations
51 Some key concluding thoughts/questions around Motivation:1.The link between motivation and pay is unclear 2. Which people have the greatest influence on our motivation at work? (family, work groups, managers? – what roles do they play?) 3. How are current work practices and social practices changing the potential motivators? 4. What are the connections between passion and motivation at work?
52 Core textbooks (Essential reading): Huczynski A. and Buchanan D. ACore textbooks (Essential reading): Huczynski A. and Buchanan D.A. (2017). Organizational behaviour. Harlow, England: Pearson. King, D. and Lawley, S. (2016) Organizational Behaviour (2nd ed), Oxford University Press, Oxford. Further Suggested Reading: Arnold J. Randall, R , Patterson, F, Silvester, J, Robertson, I, Cooper, C, Burnes, B, Harris, D, Axtell, C and Hartog, D, D (2010). Work psychology: understanding human behaviour in the workplace. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Bloisi W., Cook C.W. and Hunsaker P.L. (2007). Management and organisational behaviour. London: McGraw-Hill. Bratton J. (2015). Introduction to work and organizational behaviour. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Buelens M. Sinding, K and Waldstrom C. (2011). Organisational behaviour. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Dick P. and Ellis S. (2006). Introduction to organizational behaviour. London: McGraw-Hill Education. Fincham R. and Rhodes P.S. (2005). Principles of organizational behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fineman S., Sims D. and Gabriel Y. (2010). Organizing & organizations. London: SAGE.
53 Grint K. and Nixon D. (2015). The sociology of workGrint K. and Nixon D. (2015). The sociology of work. Malden, MA: Polity Press. Matthewman L., Rose A. and Hetherington A. (2009). Work psychology: an introduction to human behaviour in the workplace. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Robbins S.P. and Judge T. (2015). Essentials of organizational behavior. Harlow: Pearson Education. Available from https://www.dawsonera.com/guard/protected/dawson.jsp?name=https://idp.wm in.ac.uk/entity&dest=http://www.dawsonera.com/depp/reader/protected/extern al/AbstractView/S Robbins S.P. and Judge T. (2016). Essentials of organizational behavior. Boston: Pearson. Robbins S.P. and Judge T. (2017). Organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River: Pearson. Rollinson D. (2008). Organisational behaviour and analysis: an integrated approach. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Sennett R. (1999). The corrosion of character: the personal consequences of work in the new capitalism. New York, London: W. W. Norton. Thompson P. and McHugh D. (2009). Work organisations: a critical approach. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wagner J.A. and Hollenbeck J.R. (2010). Organizational behavior: securing competitive advantage. New York: Routledge Wilson F.M. (2014). Organizational behaviour and work: a critical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
54 Motivation related sources:Adams, J.S. (1963) Towards an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5),422. Herzberg, F. (2003) One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, 81(1), Locke, E.A. and Latham, G.P. (2006) New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 15(5), Maslow, A.H. (1943) A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), Vroom, V.H. (1964) Work and motivation. Wiley: New York.