1 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANSMODULE 3 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS Methodological and Theoretical Issues © Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri 2014

2 INTRODUCTION Researching and Theorizing Africa have predominantly used problem-focused approaches. This deficit framework tends to a) disengage, disempower and distract Afrikans from constructing their own indigenous development strategies, pathways and journeys. b) Prevent well-meaning allies of Africa to help Africa pursue sustainable development.

3 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: A Contested TerrainThe discourse and practice of researching, explaining and transforming Africa have been a contest among 1. Sociological Imagination and Social Construction of reality: 2. Internal Social Relationships and External Social Relationships: 3. Westernocentricism and Afrocentricism 4. Liberal Scholarly Tradition and Critical Scholarly Tradition: 5. Undevelopment and Underdevelopment

4 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: A Contested Terrain1. Researching and theorizing Africa and African focus on macrosocial forces (captured by the concept of sociological imagination) or microsocial forces (captured by the concept of social construction of reality) at the expense of the reciprocal connections between the two social forces. Major Concepts: Sociological Imagination (Charles Wright Mills 1959): Focuses on the Social Relationships between Africa’s/Africans’ day-to-day experiences or private troubles and macrosocial forces (historical, structural and cultural contexts). Dimensions of Macrosocial Relationships Social Status Positions and Roles Structured Inequality of social stratification and mobility Social Institutions Culture Social Construction of Reality (Peter Berger and K. Luckmann 1963): Focuses on the Human Agency of Africans, their allies and exploiters Dimension of Microsocial Forces or Relationships: Symbolic Interaction among individuals and groups

5 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: A Contested Terrain2. Internal Social Relationships versus External Social Relationships: Internal (“Thinking Inside the Box”): Social relationships within African societies/countries are the cause Africa’s development issues. External (“Thinking Outside the Box”): Social relationships outside Africa are the causes of Africa’s development issues. Intersection of Internal and External (Thinking Inside and Outside the Box simultaneously): Interaction of social relationships inside and outside Africa are the causes of Africa’s development issues.

6 3. Westernocentricism versus AfrocentricismRESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: A Contested Terrain 3. Westernocentricism versus Afrocentricism Westernocentricism: Researching and theorizing about Africa and Africans are done from Western development framework Afrocentricism: Researching and theorizing Africa and African needs to shift from western to Indigenous Afrikan perspectives

7 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: A Contested Terrain4. Liberal Scholarly Tradition versus Critical Scholarly Tradition: The liberal tradition researches and theorizes Africa and Africans from the marketization or neo-liberal perspective: Therefore, it envisions the development of free-market democracies and cultures in Africa similar to those found in Western societies. The critical tradition researches and theorizes Africa and Africans from the structural or political-economy perspective. Therefore, it rejects the liberal model, and emphasizes revolutionary struggles and populist regimes in Africa to sever the exploitative relationship between the West and African countries. The Synthesis Tradition researches and theorizes Africa and Africans from both the neo-liberal marketization and structural or political-economy perspectives.

8 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: A Contested Terrain5. Culture Evolution Capital Capitalism Imperialism Slave trade Colonialism World Systems Globalization Patriarchy Definition of Development Technology Human Capital Human Factor DEVELOPMENT UNDEVELOPMENT UNDERDEVELOPMENT

9 Positivism Realism METHODOLOGIES Criticalism Interpretism PARADIGMFunctionalism 1. Growth Stages Theory 2. Modernization Theory Social Conflict 1. Dependency Theory 2. World System Theory 3. Globalization Theory 4. Postcolonial Theory Empowerment Theories: 1. Marxist Theory 2. Feminist Theory 3. Community Empowerment Theory 1. Feminist Theory 2. Womanism Theory Interactionism Structuration 1. Human Factor Theory Liberal Tradition Critical Tradition Liberal Tradition Liberal Tradition PARADIGM Liberal Tradition Undevelopment Critical Tradition THEORIES Underdevelopment 1. Human Agency Theory 2. Human Factor Theory Liberal Tradition Undevelopment or Underdevelopment Synthesis Tradition

10 METHODOLOGIES

11 Methodologies Positivism: Objective Existence of RealityIts standpoint is that reality exists independent of social actors: Only the knowledge produced in a value-free (value-neutral) manner and can be confirmed by the senses qualifies as knowledge; the social world should be researched according to the same principles, procedures and ethos of the natural science (The Scientific Method). The empiricist principles of the positivist research frame work applies the following: Objectivity, Causality, Deductive reasoning, Quantitative methods, and Generalization (Schwartz & Van de Sande 2011, pp ). FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM has this vision of reality

12 Methodologies Interpretivism: Subjective construction of RealityThis is post-positivism or post-modernism research framework (Schwartz & Van de Sande 2011, p. 14). Its standpoint is that reality is not pre-given but produced by social actors and has no independent and objective existence. Value-free knowledge is a myth and that social phenomena are not only produced through social interaction but that they are in constant state of revision (Bryman, 2001, p. 18). Interpretivist research applies the following principles: Subjectivity, Description (understanding as opposed to causality), Inductive reasoning, and Qualitative methods INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM has this vision of reality.

13 Methodologies Criticalism: Deconstruction and Transformation of Reality Its standpoint is that there are enduring structures underlying observable social phenomena. Observable social phenomena are superficial. Identification of the enduring structures offer the prospect of introducing changes that can transform the status quo (Bryman, 2004) because It sensitizes researchers to opposing and contradictory forces within capitalism (Schwartz & Van de Sande 2011, p. 16). SOCIAL CONFLICT have this vision of reality.

14 Methodologies Criticalism: FEMINIST DIMENSION:It is a social justice oriented approach to research. Feminist Empiricism: Believes that the basic principles of positivist empiricism should not be rejected. However, it asserts that positivist empiricism can be improved by making certain modifications, because science is not value-free and the scientific method is not sufficient to screen out the influence of these values (Schwartz & van de Sande 2011, p. 17). Feminist Standpoint: Acknowledges the role of the researcher as an active participant in the research and focuses on the experience of women in a patriarchal world (Ibid.). FEMINIST PARADIGM has this vision of reality.

15 Methodologies Realism:This methodology synthesizes the three earlier research approaches. STRUCTURATION PARADIGM has this vision of reality.

16 Methodologies Positivism, interpretism, criticalism and realism are Westernized methodologies. As such they neglect Indigenous research methodologies

17 Methodologies Indigenous Research ParadigmResearch is ceremony and must result in building respectful relationships. It must apply the principles of community ownership, control, access, and possession of research to ensure the self-determination of Indigenous people and the preservation and development of their culture. Reference: Wilson 2008; Schwartz & Van de Sande 2011, p. 82.

18 THEORIES

19 Liberal Tradition #1: Functionalist Paradigm: RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: THINKING INSIDE THE BOX 1. POSITIVISM Liberal Tradition #1: Functionalist Paradigm: Growth Stages Theory (W.W. Rostow) Modernization Theory (David McClelland, Daniel Lerner, Alex Inkeles, Martin Lipset, Talcott Parsons) 2. INTERPRETISM Liberal Tradition #2: Interactionist Paradigm: Human Agency (Peter Berger). Human Factor Theory (Senyo Adjibolosoo) Feminist Paradigm: Gender Relations Theory (Betty Friedan) Womanism Paradigm? (Alice Walker)

20 Critical Tradition #1: Marxist Social Conflict ParadigmRESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: THINKING INSIDE THE BOX CRITICALISM Critical Tradition #1: Marxist Social Conflict Paradigm Empowerment Theories Marxist Theory (Karl Marx) Feminist Theory (Dorothy Smith) Community Empowerment Theory (Phil Bartle)

21 Critical Tradition #2: Neo-Marxist Social Conflict ParadigmRESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX POSITIVISM: Critical Tradition #2: Neo-Marxist Social Conflict Paradigm Underdevelopment Theories: Dependency Theory (Andre Gunder Frank, Theotonio Dos Santos, Fernando henrique Cardoso, Enzo Faletto, Celso Furtado) World-System Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein) Globalization Theory (Stanley Eitzen, Alan Heddley, Paul Hirst, Abraham Thompson, Maxine Beca Zinn) Postcolonial Theory (Frantz Fanon, Edward Said, Anthony Kwame Appiah)

22 RESEARCHING, EXPLAINING AND TRANSFORMING AFRICA AND AFRICANS: THINKING OUTSIDE & INSIDE THE BOXREALISM Liberal & Critical Traditions: Straturation Paradigm (Anthony Giddens 1990s) Human Factor Theory (Senyo Adjibolosoo 1995)

23 THE LIBERAL TRADITION

24 THE LIBERAL TRADITION: Why Africa is UndevelopedProblem-focused: Deficit Theorizing: That is, LACK OF : 1. Scientific and Technological knowledge 2. Modern cultural/value orientation 3. Democracy 4. Civil Society 5. Ethnic Harmony 6. Gender Equality and Involvement of Women 7. Community Empowerment 8. Strong African states 9. Nationalist-oriented African elite 10. Uncorrupted non-state actors 11. Capital (Ref. Schraedder, 2004, pp )

25 LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1 (Macrosocial Forces): THINKING INSIDE THE BOX:

26 Functionalism: Macrosocial Forces Inside AfricaLIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: FUNCTIONALISM AND AFRICA Functionalism: Macrosocial Forces Inside Africa Development theories that have affinity with the sociological paradigm of FUNCTIONALISM tend to focus their explanations and development proposals on macrosocial forces inside Africa. A single development path/journey and a single development destination; same as Western countries.

27 1. FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM:LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM THINKING INSIDE THE BOX: 1. FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM: THEORIES: Stages of Economic Growth Theory Modernization Theory EXPLANATIONS/CAUSES: Macrosocial forces internal to Africa SOLUTIONS: Neo-liberal Globalization Perspective: Internal Problems but External Solutions.

28 FOCUS: UNDEVELOPMENT CUASE: Homeostasis:LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM THINKING INSIDE THE BOX: FOCUS: UNDEVELOPMENT CUASE: Homeostasis: Macrosocial Forces inside Africa: A Suprasocietal Evolutionary Process: Africa’s undevelopment is related to observable, objective, and grand internal dysfunctional cultures, beyond the control of human agency, that disrupt the homeostasis of African countries. SOLUTION: Africa will experience development, that is, attain homeostasis, in due course through the universal law of evolution--from simple, primitive societal forms toward complex, industrial entity-- beyond the control of Africa and Africans.

29 LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM STAGES OF ECONOMIC GROWTH THEORY AND AFRICA CAUSE: Backwardness of Africa’s scientific and technological knowledges: SOLUTION: Scientific and technical diffusion from the West to Africa would make Africa go through the natural stages of development to become developed. Africa and Africans are at the undeveloped stage of economic growth, the natural beginning point of societal development. With time, as Africa experiences scientific and technological diffusion from the western nations, it would evolve or grow economically through the preconditions for economic take-off and actual take-off to maturation and mass consumption. CONCEPTS: UNDEVELOPED, GROWTH STAGES AND DIFFUSION

30 CAUSE: The Backwardness of Africa’s Value Orientation or cultures:LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM MODERNIZATION THEORY AND AFRICA CAUSE: The Backwardness of Africa’s Value Orientation or cultures: Dualism (Traditional Sector vs. Modern Sector) of African nation-states: The primitive value orientations of Africa’s traditional sector and Africans in this sector is the key to understanding why the nation-states of Africa remain undeveloped. SOLUTION: The nation-states of Africa will experience development if the appropriate values and accompanying attitudes, skills, knowledge, technology and institutions from the modern sector/countries are diffused to the traditional sectors/African nation-states. CONCEPTS:UNDEVELOPED, CULTURE, DUALISM, DIFFUSION

31 LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2 (Microsocial Forces): THINKING INSIDE THE BOX:

32 INTERACTIONIST & FEMINIST PARADIGMSLIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: INTERACTIONIST & FEMINIST PARADIGMS THINKING INSIDE THE BOX: INTERACTIONIST & FEMINIST PARADIGMS Human Agency Theory Patriarchy Theory EXPLANATIONS/CAUSES: Microsocial Forces internal to Africa SOLUTIONS: Internally induced problems, internal solutions

33 LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM AND AFRICA THINKING INSIDE THE BOX: Human Agency Theory: Human Agency is the ability and capacity of people to think and make choices As an action unit, Africa is responsible for its own development processes. Africa is an action unit, that is, a subjective actor that takes account of and actively interprets its relationships with the outside world and acts according to the meanings it attaches to those relationships. Therefore, in the final analysis Africa is responsible for its undevelopment or underdevelopment or development. Likewise, Africans on the continent and in the diaspora are action units. They actively construct their relationships through shared meanings, with people, organizations, cultures and structures they encounter. They interpret, evaluate, negotiate, and freely choose courses of action. They are therefore responsible for their experiences and social conditions. CONCEPTS: ACTION UNIT, SUBJECTIVITY, DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION

34 LIBERAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: POSTMODERN FEMINIST PARADIGM AND AFRICA: THINKING INSIDE THE BOX: CAUSE: Micro Patriarchy in Africa : African females’ subjective misconception of the power of African male-dominated knowledge system. Postmodern feminism embraces the interactionist paradigm and places emphasis on the subjective meaning and interpretation individual African girls and women give to inequality and oppression. SOLUTION: Promote female education at all levels: The political goal of this feminist standpoint is to eliminate the current male domination of the knowledge industry, for therein lies a great deal of the power that resides with men, and which African men use to exclude African women from key positions and resources in African countries. CONCEPTS: MALE DOMINANCE, GENDER INEQUALITY, OPPRESSION, KNOWLEDGE AND POWER

35 THE CRITICAL TRADITION

36 THE CRITICAL TRADITION: Why Africa is UnderdevelopedProblem-focused: The Punching Bag Approach: 1. Capitalist Competition for Valued Resources 2. Metropole/Centre – Periphery/Satellite Structural Relationships. 3. Core – Periphery Unequal Exchange System 4. Intensive interconnections and interdependencies on a global scale 5. Imperialism 6. Western Patriarchy 7. Community Development Approach

37 CRITICAL TRADITION: Why Africa is UnderdevelopedSocial Conflict Paradigm: Dialectics of Macrosocial Forces Inside Africa and Macrosocial Forces Outside Africa Development theories that have affinity with the sociological paradigm of SOCIAL CONFLICT are two types: Marxist type tends to focus its explanations and development proposals on social forces internal to Africa; and some Neo-Marxists focus on external forces.

38 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1 (Macrosocial Forces):Thinking Outside the Box

39 Underdevelopment TheoriesCRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX Underdevelopment Theories Dependency theory World System theory Globalization theory Postcolonial Theory EXPLANATIONS/CAUSES: Forces external to Africa SOLUTIONS: Radical Globalization Perspective: Externally induced problems, external solutions

40 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: Think Outside the Box SOCIAL CONFLICT PARADIGM AND AFRICA Capitalist Competition for Valued Resources: Africa’s underdevelopment is related to observable objective, grand external exploitation set into motion by capitalist competition among the western nations for economic resources. This competition involves the western world siphoning material, financial, and human resources from Africa using the African elite as the main conduit, thus creating inequality, poverty, and resource conflict in Africa. Resource conflict in Africa would generate socialist revolutions that would eliminate underdevelopment by establishing communism in African countries. CONCEPTS: CAPITALIST COMPETITION, EXPLOITATION, INEQUALITY, CONFLICT

41 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: Think Outside the Box DEPENDENCY THEORY:CAUSE: Metropole/Centre – Satellite Structural Relationships (Andre Gunder Frank 1970?). Development of Underdevelopment: Development and underdevelopment are structurally connected: The overall structure of the unequal capitalist world economic system is the one that makes development possible for some countries but renders it highly unlikely for others. Colonialism, imperialism, and unequal terms of trade imposed on Africa by core capitalist countries have, through the extraction of surplus (exploitation) facilitated by African compradors (economic and political elites serving the interests of foreign powers), transformed Africa from undeveloped independent entity into structural dependence and underdevelopment, thus giving it a satellite status. SOLUTION: Cut the ties between the metropole countries and the satellite countries through socialist revolution. CONCEPTS: CAPITALISM, COLONIALISM, IMPERIALISM, INEQUALITY, UNDEVELOPED, UNDERDEVELOPMENT, CENTRE-SATELLITE.

42 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: Think Outside the Box WORLD-SYSTEM THEORY:CAUSE: Core – Periphery Unequal Exchange System The capitalist world-economy as a system is an unequal exchange system where surplus is systematically transferred from the low-tech non-industrialized periphery to high-technology, industrialized core in the ongoing transition to a world economy based on socialist principles. SOLUTION: Africa’s ability to participate intelligently in its own development processes is dependent on its ability to perceive the forces and relations of production of the world-economy as an objective whole structural system of core-periphery power hierarchy relationships with technology as the central factor in the positioning of a region in the core or periphery. CONCEPTS: WORLD-SYSTEM, CAPITALIST WORLD ECONOMY, SOCIALISM, CORE-PERIPHERY, TECHNOLOGY, UNEQUAL EXCHANGE.

43 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: Think Outside the Box GLOBALIZATION THEORYCAUSE: Intensive interconnections and interdependencies on a global scale Globalization renders Third World localities like Africa as powerless entities passively existing at only the periphery of the global village. Globalization operating through the conduits of multinational/transnational corporations, international financial institutions, international tourism and immigration, international trade and investment, cross-/inter-cultural networks, international media and entertainment reproduces poverty, oppression, inequality, instability, violence, cultural homogenization, and environmental destruction in Africa. SOLUTION: Stop globalization in its track CONCEPTS: GLOBALIZATION, INTERCONNECTIONS, INTERDEPENDENCIES, GLOBAL, LOCAL.

44 SOLUTION: DecolonizationCRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #1: Think Outside the Box POSTCOLONIAL THEORY CAUSE: Imperialism Imperialism, the highest stage of capitalism, operating through economics, culture, knowledge, and discourse serves the needs of finance capital. It uses the domination weapons of colonialism and neo-colonialism to entice or intimidate African leaders to facilitate brain drain and siphon vital material and financial resources from the continent to the imperialist centers of the world. SOLUTION: Decolonization CONCEPTS: IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM, NEOCOLONIALISM, DECOLONIZATION, DOMINATION.

45 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2 (Macrosocial Forces): THINKING INSIDE THE BOX

46 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: THINK INSIDE THE BOXEmpowerment Theories Marxist Theory Feminist Theory Womanism Theory Community Empowerment Theory EXPLANATIONS/CAUSES: Forces inside Africa SOLUTIONS: Praxis: Theory-based externally developed strategies to empower Africa and Africans to eliminate their underdevelopment

47 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: THINK INSIDE THE BOXPraxis Knowledge uncovers hidden structures of society and allows or empowers people to act upon the world and change it. Africa is the product of structural forces that are not seen, felt, or heard that need to be uncovered, deconstructed, destroyed and replaced. Therefore academic understanding and explanations of Africa and Africans through research methodologies and theories are not enough. There is a need for PRAXIS to empower Africans to destroy and replace these invisible structural factors.

48 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: Think Inside the Box MARXIST THEORY AND AFRICACAUSE: Class Struggles in Africa: Capitalism in Africa has transformed African social structures and cultures into a class society with invisible structures of bourgoisie, petit-bourgeoisie, and proletariat classes . The African bourgeoisie, as independent actors, connive with the foreign bourgeoisie to exploit the African proletariat causing conflict and development of underdevelopment manifested in violence in Africa. SOLUTIONS: For Africa to experience development, African proletariat needs to be empowered to eliminate the invisible bourgeoisie structures through a socialist revolution, establish a dictatorship of the proletariat and eventually communism. CONCEPTS: SOCIAL CLASS, CLASS STRUGGLE, EXPLOITATION, CONFLICT, REVOLUTION, SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM.

49 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: Think Inside the Box NEO-MARXIST THEORY AND AFRICACAUSE: The Ideology of Development of Underdevelopment that create conflict between the ruling elite and with dominant economic class: Neo-Marxists reject the development of underdevelopment thesis that the worldwide expansion of capitalism has had a permanent negative effect on Africa. SOLUTION: Dependent Development: Individual African countries can achieve dependent development in the capitalist world system because the ruling class of the state can cooperate with the dominant economic classes of society to pursue capitalist development that runs counter to the interests of foreign powers (Schraeder 2004, p. 332). CONCEPTS: DEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT, RULING CLASS, THE STATE, ECONOMIC CLASS.

50 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: Think Inside the Box CRITICAL FEMINIST THEORY AND AFRICA CAUSE: Macro-Patriarchy: Patriarchal Ideology and Oppressive Gender Relations. African females/girls/women are passive victims of Indigenous African patriarchy. Invisible structures, namely, patriarchal ideology and oppressive gender relations, feed male violence (including femicide) against girl children and women, and reproduces inequality against African females. SOLUTION: Empowerment of African women through Western education and activism would eliminate the invisible ideological structures that power patriarchy in Africa and the diaspora. CONCEPTS: PATRIARCHAL IDEOLOGY, MALE VIOLENCE, FEMICIDE, GENDER RELATIONS INEQUALITY, OPPRESSION, EDUCATION, EMPOWERMENT

51 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: Think Inside the Box WOMANISM THEORY AND AFRICAWomanism is a term that has a similar meaning to Feminism but describes all women, career driven and not. Womanism is a term of wholeness that displays women of all age ranges and cultures. This was not the case at first since the term was first used by Alice Walker, meaning Womanism referring to black feminist. Now this title embodies the whole essence of a woman’s being and states to the world she is whom she is no matter if she is rich or poor. Many women feel a drawing to this title more than Feminist because of stigmatism to the word (http://www.blackprint.cc/articles/feminism-vs-womanism.htm).

52 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: Think Inside the Box WOMANISM THEORY AND AFRICACAUSE: Balkanization of African Women Many African women are deceived to believe that they do not have power because they are young, poor, uneducated, too old, not from the dominant ethnic groups, not politicians, not affiliated to dominant religion, etc. SOLUTION: Unification of African Women: Unify African women through their engagement with power regardless of their ages, culture, economic status, education, political affiliation, ethnicity, social class, religion, etc. CONCEPTS: WOMANISM, POWER, BALKANIZATION, UNIFICATION

53 CRITICAL TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING #2: Think Inside the Box COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT THEORY AND AFRICA CAUSE: Community Development Approach to Development: Community Development as a charity oriented colonial social engineering project which seeks to pursue capacity building through agencies and/or experts outside the community initiating projects and supplying logistics that would make the community develop aggravates or reproduces underdevelopment. SOLUTION: Therefore it needs to be replaced with Community Empowerment Approach. Community Empowerment seeks to “stimulate a community to develop its own capacity” to eliminate poverty through partnerships, training, information, guidance, encouragement, etc. In community empowerment, a community initiates its own projects/programs, takes full control, exercising full decision making and accepting full responsibility for all its actions (Bartle 2008). CONCEPTS: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT, SOCIAL ENGINEERING, CHARITY, CAPACITY BUILDING,

54 THE SYNTHESIS TRADITION

55 Structuration ParadigmTHE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Thinking Inside and Outside the Box: STRUCTURATION PARADIGM Structuration Paradigm Dualism Theory The Human Factor Theory EXPLANATIONS/CAUSES: The Global – Local Dialectic Human Factor Decay SOLUTIONS: Human Factor Competency

56 Cause: Dualism: Macro – Micro SynthesisTHE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Thinking Inside and Outside the Box: STRUCTURATION PARADIGM AND AFRICA Cause: Dualism: Macro – Micro Synthesis Interaction among structural factors, cultural features, and human agency of the globalizing world and Africa operates as conscious and unconscious determinants of Africa’s underdevelopment and development. Solution: Strategies that connect political economy, culture and human agency of African countries. CONCEPTS: STRUCTURATION, STRUCTURE, CULTURE, HUMAN AGENCY, DUALISM

57 CAUSE: Human Factor Decay (Adjibolosoo 1995)THE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Think Inside and Outside the Box: THE HUMAN FACTOR THEORY CAUSE: Human Factor Decay (Adjibolosoo 1995) At the interface of the external (global)– internal (local) interaction in Africa is Human Factor Decay which constitutes the immediate cause of Africa’s underdevelopment: SOLUTION: Human Factor Competency: It would require Africans with high human factor competency index to reconstruct the global-local dialectics into a resource to develop Africa. CONCEPTS: HUMAN FACTOR, HUMAN FACTOR DECAY, HUMAN FACTOR COMPETENCY

58 THE HUMAN FACTOR Simplified rendition of the meaning of the concept:Although Ben Carson doesn’t use the concept “Human Factor”, his argument captures the essence of the concept which is “The Humanitarian Qualities of People” Dr. Benjamin Carson (February 8, 2013)

59 What is the Human Factor (HF)?THE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Think Inside and Outside the Box: THE HUMAN FACTOR THEORY What is the Human Factor (HF)? It is more than Human Capital. The spectrum of personality characteristics and other dimensions of human performance that enable social, economic and political institutions to function and remain functional over time (Adjibolosoo 1993). A complex interaction of knowledge, skills, abilities and principles that transform human capacity and transform human conduct for the betterment or debasement of the individual and society (Adu-Febiri 2003).

60 DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FACTORTHE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Think Inside and Outside the Box: THE HUMAN FACTOR THEORY DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FACTOR Human Capital Social Capital Cultural Capital Emotional Capital Moral Capital Spiritual Capital Aesthetic Capital Human Abilities Human Potential

61 THE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Think Inside and Outside the Box: THE HUMAN FACTOR THEORY HUMAN FACTOR DECAY: The material and non-material pursuit of Africans as real, active, sensuous human beings in their encounter with structural and cultural forces of the Arabic and Atlantic slave trade, colonization and globalization has produced human factor decay in African countries.

62 THE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: Think Inside and Outside the Box THE HUMAN FACTOR THEORY HUMAN FACTOR DECAY Deterioration in the human capital, cultural capital, social capital, aesthetic capital, emotional capital, moral capital, and spiritual capital of people, human abilities, organizations, institutions, communities and societies (Adjibolosoo 1995). This deterioration causes mental, cultural, emotional, moral, spiritual, and aesthetic disconnection of people from each other, family, community, nation, society, common humanity, the environment, and cosmos (Adu-Febiri 2011).

63 THE SYNTHESIS TRADITION’S DEVELOPMENT THEORIZING: THINK INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE BOX: THE HUMAN FACTOR THEORY HUMAN FACTOR COMPETENCY Distilling from earlier definitions of the HFC (Adjibolosoo, 1995; Adu-Febiri, 2000, 2001, 2003/2004 and 2011), HFC constitutes peoples’ thinking and humanitarian abilities that inspire and facilitate their acquisition and application of appropriate resources to connect with our common humanity and the environment emotionally, morally and spiritually to make a sustainable difference in society. In essence, HFC is an essential dimension of what Adjibolosoo (1995, p. 33) conceptualizes as “the appropriate human qualities and/or characteristics (i.e., the HF). Human Factor Decay (HFD) is the decline or loss or lack of those human qualities and/or characteristics (Adjibolosoo 1995). Senyo Adjibolosoo (1995, pp. 33 and 36), defines the HF as a spectrum of personality characteristics that enable social, economic, and political institutions to function and remain functional over time. These [personality characteristics] include human capital, spiritual capital, moral capital, aesthetic capital, human abilities, and human potential.

64 CONCLUSION If Africa’s development efforts are going to be meaningful and relevant to the desires, goals and hopes of Africans, indigenous research methodologies and theorizing that convert both internal and external relationships and both macrosocial and microsocial forces into resources for communities have to play a prominent role.

65 References Adjibolosoo, Senyo The Human Factor in Developing Africa, Westport, Conn.: Praeger. Adu-Febiri, Francis “Intercultural Diversities, Common Humanity”. LOTUS Presentation on Intercultural Diversity and Restructuring Post-Secondary Education, organized by LOTUS, the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. Adu-Febiri, Francis “Re-defining the Human Factor: An Explorative exercise”. Review of Human Factor Studies, Volume 10, No. 1, Special Issue, pp Adu-Febiri, Francis. 2003/2004. “Facilitating cultural Diversity in a Monolithic Global Economy: The Role of Human Factor Education.” International Journal of the Humanities, Volume 1, pp Adu-Febiri, Francis. 2003: “Putting the Human Factor to Work in African Tourism: A Human Factor Competency Model.” In Victor N. Muzvidziwa and Paul Gundani (eds.). Management and the Human Factor: Lessons for Africa. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications. Adu-Febiri, Francis. 2001: “Human Factor Competence and the Performance Effectiveness of Hospitality Professionals.” Senyo Adjibolosoo, ed., Portraits of Human Behavior and Performance: The Human Factor in Action, Lanham: University Press of America. Adu-Febiri, Francis “Putting the Human Factor to Work in African Tourism: A Human Factor Competency Model”. Paper presented at the 4th Bi-annial conference of the IIHFD, July 17-18, Harare: University of Zimbabwe. Bryman, Alan & Social Research Methods. Oxford: oxford University press Schraeder, Peter J African Politics and Society: A Mosaic in Transformation. Second Edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth Schwartz Karen and Adje Van de Sande Research for Social Justice: A Community –Based Approach. Halifax: Ferwood Publishing Wilson, Shawn Research Is Ceremony: Indigenous Research Methods. Halifax & Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing.