1 Semester 2 AP BIOLOGY REVIEW 3:15-5:15 pm, May 7th (Thurs)This is helpful for you to review semester 2 major topics (this semester). This powerpoint handout goes with this presentation so you don’t need to write anything down. Additionally, the following contains helpful resources: Your AP Packet and An AP Review Book (so important!!) Remember that correcting your Mock before the AP Biology Exam (which is May 11th) will give you an additional 5 points on the mock after the square root curve. Since we just covered Ch 45-48, that material from this semester is not in this powerpoint.

2 Classification Recall: K P C O F G SRemember that it’s from least most specific 6 Kingdoms: -archabacteria -eubacteria -protista -fungi -plantae -animalia

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4 Bacteria vs. Virus

5 Viruses Reproduce by Lytic or Lysogenic Cycle

6 Bacteria, unlike Viruses, do Binary Fission

7 Operons In ProkaryotesRegion of a chromosome where a set of genes are transcribed at one time. Allows all of the enzymes needed for a pathway to be present at once. Two Types Inducible are usually off but can be turned on. Like the lac operon.

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9 The “Favorite” PhylumsExpect 1-2 questions related to this out of the 100 multiple choice questions. These are in your AP Review Packet… Porifera (sponges) Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals) Mollusca (snails, octupus, squid) Annelida (segmented worms) Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustaceans) Echniodermata (star fish, sea urchins) Chordata (animals that have notochord {becomes brain + spinal cord}, gill slits, muscular tail)

10 Major Branches of the Animal KingdomProtostomes Mollusks, Annelids and Arthropods -Spiral Cleavage (cell divisions are along a diagonal line) -Determinate (cell fate is established early) Mouth forms from blastopore Schizocoelus (solid masses of mesoderm form coelom) Coelomate Have a true coelom- a body cavity lined with tissue of mesodermal origin Bilateria (bilateral symmetry) Cephalization 3 germ layers “Porifera” Sponges Deuterostomes Echinoderms and Chordates -Radial Cleavage (cell divisions line up with the original cell divisions). Indeterminate (allows for identical twins!) anus forms from blastophore Enterocoelous (outpockets of the archenteron form the coelom) Animals Pseudocoelomatea Rotifer-Coelom not completely lined by mesoderm Subkingdom Eumetazoa Radiata-”Cnidarians” Radial Symmetry Acoelomate No cavity between the gut and the body wall. Flatworm “Platyhelminthes”

11 A word about symmetry… Symmetry is important in the sense that it has to do with lower/higher organisms (milestone) RADIAL symmetry- circular, disk shaped. Simple. Echnioderms + Porifera BILATERAL symmetry- if organism cut in half, they have symmetric halves. More complex. Compartmentalized.

12 FROM BIO I…Ecology (in eco packet)Four levels of organization: Biosphere- (think BIG)- this is the entire part of the earth where living things live Ecosystem- interaction of living/nonliving things Community- Group of populations interacting in same area Population= group of individuals of same species interbreeding

13 A word about animal behavior…Imprinting (geese) vs. Classical Conditioning (dog slobber) vs. Operant Conditioning (shocking mice) Insight (reasoning)- for higher organisms Kinesis vs. Taxis

14 Three Forgotten Biomes (Ecology cont.)Tundra (northernmost regions) Flora (plants) = not much, some trees, grass Fauna (animals) = arctic foxes, snowy owls, reindeer -Taiga (northern forests) Flora=conifers Fauna= caribou, wolves, moose, rabbits Temperate Deciduous Forests Flora= Trees that drop their leaves in winter Fauna= deer, wolves,

15 Eco…the most IMPORTANT (and from the packet)-r strategists (think they breed like cRazy)- they live in uncertain environments, breed fast, don’t care for young, short life span, small (example: bacteria, weeds) -k strategists- live in stable environments, long life span, care for young (example: elephant, humans) -Carrying Capacity= the max number of individuals of a species that a habitat can support

16 Reproductive Barriers Leading to SpeciationPrezygotic Barriers Postzygotic Barriers Habitat Isolation Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mating Mechanical Isolation Gametic Isolation Fertilization Reduced Hybrid viability Reduced Hybrid fertility Hybrid breakdown

17 Evidence for EvolutionWhat do all of the following mean? -Biogeography -Homologous (NOT analagous) structures -Biochemistry (aka Molecular evidence) -Fossil Record -Embryology -Vestigial Structures

18 VOCAB Allopatric- Species takes place in populations with geographically separate ranges. Gene flow interrupted by separated pace! Sympatric- Speciation takes places in geographically overlapping populations. Biological factors reduce gene flow. Genetic Drift (types include bottleneck and founder effect)

19 q2=.04 q = √.04= .2 1-q = p 1-.2= .8 So q= .2 p=.8 Substitute in 2pqHARDY WEINBERG 4% of a sheep population has black wool, 96% white. If black wool is recessive what % of the population is heterozygous? q2=.04 q = √.04= .2 1-q = p 1-.2= .8 So q= p=.8 Substitute in 2pq 2 (.8) (.2) = .32 or 32%

20 What % of the population is homozygous for white wool? 4% of a sheep population has black wool, 96% white. If black wool is recessive what % of the population is heterozygous? What % of the population is homozygous for white wool? Substitute in for p2 .82= .64 = 64%

21 Plants Meristems-generate cells throughout the plants life.Apical- extend roots and shoots (Primary Growth) Lateral- add girth (secondary growth) Transport tissues Xylem-water and minerals Phloem- carry sugar Phloem is made of: -Sieve tube cells and companion cells Xylem is made of: Tracheids- long thin Vessel elements- wider, shorter Both are dead at functional maturity Movement of water from roots to leaves occurs by Bulk-Flow- the movement of fluid driven by a pressure difference at opposite ends of a conduit. The pressure difference is generated at the leaf end by transpirational pull ( lower pressure) at the leaf end. Water pulled tight against the cell walls in the air spaces of the leaf cause the negative pressure which draws water up xylem.

22 Plant Reproduction in Angiosperms (How are gymnosperms and bryophytes different?)

23 Gene Technology Let’s discuss all of these: -Using Vectors -Using cDNA-Transformation -Transduction -Electrophoresis -PCR

24 Ch 40 DIAGRAM

25 Ch 41 DIAGRAM

26 CH 42 DIAGRAM

27 Ch 43 DIAGRAM

28 Lab 6: Molecular BiologyDescription Transformation insert foreign gene in bacteria by using engineered plasmid also insert ampicillin resistant gene on same plasmid as selectable marker Gel electrophoresis cut DNA with restriction enzyme fragments separate on gel based on size

29 Lab 6: Molecular BiologyConcepts transformation plasmid selectable marker ampicillin resistance restriction enzyme gel electrophoresis DNA is negatively charged smaller fragments travel faster

30 Lab 6: Transformation Conclusions can insert foreign DNA using vectorampicillin becomes selecting agent no transformation = no growth on amp+ plate

31 Lab 6: Gel ElectrophoresisConclusions DNA = negatively charged correlate distance to size smaller fragments travel faster & therefore farther

32 Lab 6: Molecular BiologyESSAY 1995 The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total length of 4,900 base pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for two restriction enzymes (enzyme X and enzyme Y). Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for the separation of DNA fragments Describe the results you would expect from electrophoretic separation of fragments from the following treatments of the DNA segment above. Assume that the digestion occurred under appropriate conditions and went to completion. DNA digested with only enzyme X DNA digested with only enzyme Y DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combined Undigested DNA Explain both of the following: The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes The different results you would expect if a mutation occurred at the recognition site for enzyme Y.

33 Lab 6: Molecular BiologyESSAY 2002 The human genome illustrates both continuity and change. Describe the essential features of two of the procedures/techniques below. For each of the procedures/techniques you describe, explain how its application contributes to understanding genetics. The use of a bacterial plasmid to clone and sequence a human gene Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP analysis) All humans are nearly identical genetically in coding sequences and have many proteins that are identical in structure and function. Nevertheless, each human has a unique DNA fingerprint. Explain this apparent contradiction.

34 Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)Description given fly of unknown genotype use crosses to determine mode of inheritance of trait

35 Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)Concepts phenotype vs. genotype dominant vs. recessive P, F1, F2 generations sex-linked monohybrid cross dihybrid cross test cross chi square

36 Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)Conclusions: Can you solve these? Case 1 Case 2

37 Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)ESSAY 2003 (part 1) In fruit flies, the phenotype for eye color is determined by a certain locus. E indicates the dominant allele and e indicates the recessive allele. The cross between a male wild type fruit fly and a female white eyed fruit fly produced the following offspring The wild-type and white-eyed individuals from the F1 generation were then crossed to produce the following offspring. a. Determine the genotypes of the original parents (P generation) and explain your reasoning. You may use Punnett squares to enhance your description, but the results from the Punnett squares must be discussed in your answer. b. Use a Chi-squared test on the F2 generation data to analyze your prediction of the parental genotypes. Show all your work and explain the importance of your final answer. c. The brown-eyed female of the F1 generation resulted from a mutational change. Explain what a mutation is, and discuss two types of mutations that might have produced the brown-eyed female in the F1 generation. Wild-Type Male Wild-Type Female White-eyed Male White-Eyed Female Brown-Eyed Female F-1 45 55 1 Wild-Type Male Wild-Type Female White-eyed Male White-Eyed Female Brown-Eyed Female F-2 23 31 22 24

38 Lab 7: Genetics (Fly Lab)ESSAY 2003 (part 2) The formula for Chi-squared is: Probability (p) Degrees of Freedom (df) 1 2 3 4 5 .05 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49 11.1 2 =  (observed – expected)2 expected

39 Lab 8: Population GeneticsDescription simulations were used to study effects of different parameters on frequency of alleles in a population selection heterozygous advantage genetic drift

40 Lab 8: Population GeneticsConcepts Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium p + q = 1 p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 required conditions large population random mating no mutations no natural selection no migration gene pool heterozygous advantage genetic drift founder effect bottleneck

41 Lab 8: Population GeneticsConclusions recessive alleles remain hidden in the pool of heterozygotes even lethal recessive alleles are not completely removed from population know how to solve H-W problems! to calculate allele frequencies, use p + q = 1 to calculate genotype frequencies or how many individuals, use, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

42 Lab 8: Population GeneticsESSAY 1989 Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model. a. Indicate the conditions under which allele frequencies (p and q) remain constant from one generation to the next. b. Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. (In rabbits the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti is due to a dominant allele, W.) c. If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit population after two generations?

43 Lab 9: Transpiration

44 Lab 9: Transpiration Descriptiontest the effects of environmental factors on rate of transpiration temperature humidity air flow (wind) light intensity

45 Lab 9: Transpiration Concepts transpiration stomates guard cells xylemadhesion cohesion H bonding

46 Lab 9: Transpiration Conclusions transpiration transpiration  wind light transpiration  humidity

47 Lab 9: Transpiration ESSAY 1991 2004-2005A group of students designed an experiment to measure transpiration rates in a particular species of herbaceous plant. Plants were divided into four groups and were exposed to the following conditions. Group I: Room conditions (light, low humidity, 20°C, little air movement.) Group II: Room conditions with increased humidity. Group III: Room conditions with increased air movement (fan) Group IV: Room conditions with additional light The cumulative water loss due to transpiration of water from each plant was measured at 10-minute intervals for 30 minutes. Water loss was expressed as milliliters of water per square centimeter of leaf surface area. The data for all plants in Group I (room conditions) were averaged. The average cumulative water loss by the plants in Group I is presented in the table below. Construct and label a graph using the data for Group I. Using the same set of axes, draw and label three additional lines representing the results that you would predict for Groups II, III, and IV. Explain how biological and physical processes are responsible for the difference between each of your predictions and the data for Group I. Explain how the concept of water potential is used to account for the movement of water from the plant stem to the atmosphere during transpiration. Average Cumulative Water Loss by the Plants in Group I Time (minutes) Average Cumulative Water Loss (mL H2O/cm2) 10 3.5 x 10-4 20 7.7 x 10-4 30 10.6 x 10-4

48 Lab 10: Circulatory Physiology

49 Lab 10: Circulatory PhysiologyDescription study factors that affect heart rate body position level of activity determine whether an organism is an endotherm or an ectotherm by measuring change in pulse rate as temperature changes Daphnia

50 Lab 10: Circulatory PhysiologyConcepts thermoregulation endotherm ectotherm Q10 measures increase in metabolic activity resulting from increase in body temperature Daphnia can adjust their temperature to the environment, as temperature in environment increases, their body temperature also increases which increases their heart rate

51 Lab 10: Circulatory PhysiologyConclusions Activity increase heart rate in a fit individual pulse & blood pressure are lower & will return more quickly to resting condition after exercise than in a less fit individual Pulse rate changes in an ectotherm as external temperature changes

52 Lab 10: Circulatory PhysiologyESSAY 2002 In mammals, heart rate during periods of exercise is linked to the intensity of exercise. Discuss the interactions of the respiratory, circulatory, and nervous systems during exercise. Design a controlled experiment to determine the relationship between intensity of exercise and heart rate. On the axes provided below, indicate results you expect for both the control and the experimental groups for the controlled experiment you described in part B. Remember to label the axes.

53 Lab 12: Animal Behavior

54 Lab 12: Animal Behavior Descriptionset up an experiment to study behavior in an organism Betta fish agonistic behavior Drosophila mating behavior pillbug kinesis

55 Lab 12: Animal Behavior Concepts innate vs. learned behaviorexperimental design control vs. experimental hypothesis choice chamber temperature humidity light intensity salinity other factors

56 Lab 12: Animal Behavior Hypothesis developmentPoor: I think pillbugs will move toward the wet side of a choice chamber. Better: If pillbugs prefer a moist environment, then when they are randomly placed on both sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and allowed to move about freely for 10 minutes, most will be found on the wet side.

57 Lab 12: Animal Behavior Experimental design sample size

58 Lab 12: Animal Behavior ESSAY 2002The activities of organisms change at regular time intervals. These changes are called biological rhythms. The graph depicts the activity cycle over a 48-hour period for a fictional group of mammals called pointy-eared bombats, found on an isolated island in the temperate zone. Describe the cycle of activity for the bombats. Discuss how three of the following factors might affect the physiology and/or behavior of the bombats to result in this pattern of activity. temperature food availability presence of predators social behavior Propose a hypothesis regarding the effect of light on the cycle of activity in bombats. Describe a controlled experiment that could be performed to test this hypothesis, and the results you would expect.

59 Lab 11: Animal Behavior ESSAY 1997A scientist working with Bursatella leachii, a sea slug that lives in an intertidal habitat in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, gathered the following information about the distribution of the sea slugs within a ten-meter square plot over a 10-day period. a. For the data above, provide information on each of the following: Summarize the pattern. Identify three physiological or environmental variables that could cause the slugs to vary their distance from each other. Explain how each variable could bring about the observed pattern of distribution. b. Choose one of the variables that you identified and design a controlled experiment to test your hypothetical explanation. Describe results that would support or refute your hypothesis. time of day 12 mid 4am 8am 12 noon 4pm 8pm average distance between individuals 8.0 8.9 44.8 174.0 350.5 60.5

60 Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen

61 Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen Descriptionmeasure primary productivity by measuring O2 production factors that affect amount of dissolved O2 temperature as water temperature, its ability to hold O2 decreases photosynthetic activity in bright light, aquatic plants produce more O2 decomposition activity as organic matter decays, microbial respiration consumes O2 mixing & turbulence wave action, waterfalls & rapids aerate H2O & O2 salinity as water becomes more salty, its ability to hold O2 decreases

62 Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen Concepts dissolved O2 primary productivitymeasured in 3 ways: amount of CO2 used rate of sugar (biomass) formation rate of O2 production net productivity vs. gross productivity respiration

63 Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen Conclusions temperature = dissolved O2light = photosynthesis = O2 production O2 loss from respiration respiration = dissolved O2 (consumption of O2)

64 Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen ESSAY 2001A biologist measured dissolved oxygen in the top 30 centimeters of a moderately eutrophic (mesotrophic) lake in the temperate zone. The day was bright and sunny and the wind was calm. The results of the observation are presented below. Using the graph paper provided, plot the results that were obtained. Then, using the same set of axes, draw and label an additional line/curve representing the results that you would predict had the day been heavily overcast. Explain the biological processes that are operating in the lake to produce the observed data. Explain also how these processes would account for your prediction of results for a heavily overcast day. Describe how the introduction of high levels of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates into the lake would affect subsequent observations. Explain your predictions. hour 6am 8am 10am noon 2pm 4pm 6pm 8pm 10pm mid [O2] mg/L 0.9 1.7 3.1 4.9 6.8 8.1 7.9 6.2 4.0 2.4

65 Lab 12: Dissolved Oxygen ESSAY 2004BIn most aquatic environments, primary production is affected by light available to the community of organisms. Using measurements of dissolved oxygen concentration to determine primary productivity, design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis that primary productivity is affected by either the intensity of light or the wavelength of light. In your answer, be sure to include the following. A statement of the specific hypothesis that you are testing A description of your experimental design (Be sure to include a description of what data you would collect and how you would present and analyze the data using a graph.) A description of results that would support your hypothesis

66 Don’t Forget…one more Review session tomorrow!The last review session tomorrow focuses on the more challenging topics of this course such as: protein synthesis, photosynthesis, respiration, etc… Since the focus is on only a few topics, we can spend more time on them and go through helpful animations to revisit them.