1 The Age of Revolution

2 Transition – early modern to modern = centralized political configuration but with mass participation; urban technological-industrial econ structure; specialized-egalitarian social organization “Revolution” (modern) – rapid, violent, comprehensive, fundamental, “totality” of change Prolonged, confusing process By late 18th C, Europe had outgrown early modern institutions and doctrines but had not replaced them Age of Revolution – worked out ideas and institutions that constituted modern society Episodes of social and political disorder, alternating periods of revolution and reaction… result was a recognizably modern society.

3 PRELUDE

4 French & Indian War Last of Br-Fr colonial wars in North America Amer expansion into Ohio River valley 1754 1755 – British involved 1756 – part of world-wide war Initially French prevailed William Pitt – total war effort French defeated British take North America, India

5 Post-War Problems Fr & Ind War – the spark of independenceBritish suddenly aware of Am colonies 150 years of neglect ended Assert political authority - Direct admin – Why? Cost of the war – transfer part of burden to Americans. Series of tax acts on Americans “Taxation without representation is tyranny!” Restrict American commerce Proclamation Line of 1763

6 From Representation/Taxation to SovereigntySummary Rights 1774 Essentially shifted the argument from “no taxation” to “where sovereignty resided” Jefferson argued that American colonists retained their natural rights in a voluntary emigration to Americas Denied Parliamentary/royal authority and claimed that legislative authority resided in the colonies in colonial assemblies

7 1774-1775 Final Round Coercive Acts, April 17741st Continental Congress, Sept 1774 British blockade colonies Spring 1775 – virtually all American colonies had decided in favor of Revolution April 1775 – Lexington and Concord War has begun

8 Declaration of IndependenceJuly 4, 1776 A formal declaration renouncing allegiance to King George III and announcing the creation of a new nation -- The United States of America

9 A War of Independence How did American colonists prevail over Superpower Britain? Defensive Supported by majority of Americans Minuteman image – citizen soldier Leadership… George Washington – not a brilliant general, but careful, patient, and PRESERVED THE CONTINENTAL ARMY! French alliance – most important battles Saratoga 1777 and Battle of the Capes 1781 (Yorktown)

10 Articles of Confederation 1781-1787 “A Firm League of Friendship”Weak decentralized political system – no power to tax or regulate commerce, no executive authority, no army, no court system Ultimately failed to maintain internal order & embarrassed in foreign policy Madison – lacked legal sanction of command because the people were not the constituent power Why? Fear of central govt (revolution), rise of state power during war, jealousies Successes – Land Ordinances 1784, 85, 87 – opened west to settlement and established steps to statehood

11 The Revolution: Constitutional Convention, 1787Summer 1787 James Madison – Virginia Plan… strong central govt, 3 branches for chks & balances, bicameral legislature, power of taxation, supremacy over states, Bill of Rights ** a govt virtually overnight ** compromise ** Ambiguity of language = success for centuries

12 The French Revolution 1789-1815

13 Causes of the French RevolutionLong term: Discontent over inequalities, political grievances, economic hardships, Enlightenment critique. Short term: Economic and demographic changes, the failure of France during the mid- century wars, the failure of enlightened despots to bring necessary social/political reform, and fiscal crisis.

14 Immediate Causes – Summer 1789: 3 separate revolutionary impulses eruptClass conflict: immovable object vs. irresistible force – entrenched aristocracy vs. rising middle class. Ironically, it was the aristocracy, not the middle class that sparked the revolution in the summer of 1789.

15 Estates-General May-June 1789

16 Tennis Court Oath June 20, 1789 First Revolutionary Step

17 2. Urban Conflict – Storming of the Bastille July 14, 1789

18 Louis XVI joins the 3rd Estate

19 3. Rural Conflict: The Great Fear July-Aug 1789Agitation in Paris spills into the countryside. Peasants launch a full-scale onslaught on the sanctuaries of privilege and against feudalism. August 4, 1789 – Feudalism abolished by the National Assembly

20 Women’s March on Versailles, October 1789 Seals the Deal

21 The French Revolution has begun- the coalescence of three separate revolutionary movements ensured the success of the whole

22 Phase I: Moderate stage 1789-91

23 Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen 1789 French Constitution of 1791Lay out and confirm the revolutionary changes accomplished in the summer of 1789 Create a new democratic political system based on a social structure defined by wealth and merit (not birth or tradition) and the rights of individual citizens protected by law. POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY

24 Phase II: Liberal stage 1791-92Once the constitution was written and a government in place, the Girondin spearheaded a push for the adoption of liberal ideas like wider political representation, legal rights, and personal freedoms.

25 Failure of the Constitution of 1791Poor leadership of Louis XVI Flight to Virennes

26 Declared war on Europe – and losing

27 Phase III: Radical stage Reinterpretation of the revolutionary concept of popular sovereignty

28 Created Problem of legitimacy- Committee on Public Safety

29 New Legitimating PrinciplesThrough the Levee en Masse: Popular Sovereignty and Nationalism

30 Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Rights of Women “popular Sovereignty?”Contributions of Women during the Revolution Figure very prominently in the mass demonstrations and movements Definitely have an influence But never acquired recognition of rights – no right to vote and maintained patriarchal authority Voices of dissent - Condorcet

31 Olympe de Gouges Self-educated butcher’s daughterAt first enthusiastic about the Revolution but, although men welcomed women’s contributions, equality, liberty, and enfranchisement withheld from women Rights of Woman and Citizen 1791 Little support and eventually beheaded Reveals that once the door is opened, hard to close it – pushed open wider eventually

32 Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Rights of SlavesSugar, cotton, coffee – very rich Eve of Revolution: 3 major groups in St-Domingue – French, “gens de colour,” slaves (African-born) Amer & Fr Revol – prepared way 1789 – white colonials wanted self-govt, free blacks denied rights, so civil war 1791

33 Haitian Revolution

34 Impact of French Revolution?Liberty, equality, fraternity Citizenship / Popular Sovereignty Slavery and Democratic Society?

35 Slave Revolt Toussaint L’ouvertureSlaves revolt August 1791 – Dutty Boukman Many were warriors in Africa, reinforced by maroons Attacked and burned plantations Complicated by Fr, Br, and Sp troops wading in, taking advantage Talented leader emerged – educated, literate son of slaves who gained his freedom Joined rebels 1791 – skilled organizer, good leader, built disciplined army, played Europeans off on each other controlled most of island

36 Napoleon & the Haitian Revolution1801 – Toussaint pushed for a constitution that granted equality and unity of the people in St. Domingue but did not declare independence Napoleon – needed the wealth of the French colonies – 1802 sent troops, but weakened by disease, driven from island Jean Jacque Dessalline – declared independence late 1803 Jan 1, 1804, Republic of Haiti 1st Black Republic, Napoleon abandoned plans to build New World empire

37 The Reign of Terror

38 Terror – Brutal but necessary (?)

39 Was the French Revolution Worth the Cost in Human lives?Monarchy vs Republic – freedoms & challenges of Republic? Were the people of France ready for duties/responsibilities of citizenship? Advantages and disadvantages of “revolution” “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” worth any cost?

40 Thermidorean reaction July 1794

41 Phase IV: The Directory 1795-99Corrupt & ineffective Dependence upon army

42 Phase V: Napoleonic Era 1799-1814Coup d’etat Nov.9, 1799

43 “Proletariat King” “Republican Monarch”

44 French Empire

45 Disaster in Russia

46 Exile Return 1815

47 Waterloo and Exile again 1815Died 1821

48 Reputation of Napoleon – Great Military Leader?“Facts” of his career – which article best evaluates Napoleon’s career? Which line of argument is more relevant – personal qualities & style or military tactics & successful outcomes? Despite his many victories, Napoleon lost. His fault?

49 Results & ConsequencesMajor steps toward modern configuration Political modernization achieved - Nation state takes on its systematic shape – central national government administers directly through uniformity of laws and institutions. Door open for middle class but no social modernization yet. Popular sovereignty/nationalism Model for future revolutions British supremacy Marijuana

50 Crash Course World History Revolution in Latin America

51 Wars of Independence: Latin AmericaDifferent development American creoles influenced by Fr Rev ideals – but only wished to displace “peninsulares” and retain privileged positions – no goal of social reform or equality Political independence, but no significant social changes 1807 – Napoleon invaded Spain – creoles led independence mvmts

52 Mexico Initially peasant rebellionMiguel Hidalgo y Castillo ( ) Rallied indigenous peoples/mestizos against colonial rule Sept 16, 1810 Creoles – saw it as social – economic warfare, so captured and executed 1821 – “Emperor” Augustine Iturbide – established independence but incompetent admin 1823 Republic of Mexico

53 Spanish South America: Simon Bolivar (1783-1830)Creole, but fervent republican influenced by popular sovereignty & inspired by George Washington 1811 – started the revolution Campaigned throughout South America 1825 – Spanish defeated Goal of confederation of states as in North America but too many regional and political differences

54 Brazil Emperor Pedro 1807 – Port govt in exile1821 – Port king returned to Europe 1822 – Braz creoles called for independence Pedro agreed to demands and accepted appt as Emperor ( ) Creoles controlled society and economy – little social change in Latin America As rigidly stratified as pre-1800 – principal beneficiaries of revolutions - creole elites

55 Conservatism, Liberalism, and Socialism “The –ISMS”Political Ideologies Conservatism, Liberalism, and Socialism “The –ISMS”

56 As part of the Age of RevolutionRevolution/Reaction – a dialectic of change that created key ideas that characterize the modern world. Out of this revolution/reaction dialectic came one of the most recognizable features of modern world – IDEOLOGIES (“-isms”) of the early nineteenth century. An important part of the modernization process. Enlightenment voice, French Revolution fleshed out, turbulent political/social conditions of Age of Revolution helped form them as clearly articulated doctrines

57 “Concert of Europe” Congresses of ViennaIn 1814, victorious allies formed a post- war alliance to decide how to deal with the disruption and upheaval of French Revolution. Operating Principles: Restoration Legitimacy Prevention

58 Conservatism Reactionary – resist change, maintain status quo. Have vision of future based on principles of traditional authority and social order that may be adjusted or adapted to meet changing conditions of modern society Adherence & obedience to traditional institutions – monarchy & church Revolution BAD – reject anything that represents revolutionary change.

59 Edmund Burke (d.1797) - Granddaddy of ConservatismReflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Society is an organic unit The organic system is hierarchical Change is possible, but must be slow gradual linear change that CONSERVES the basic elements and natural arrangements

60 Liberalism

61 19th Century Liberalism Based on ideas of Enlightenment – transformed from abstract critique into systematic advocacy for a new order. Change into what was modern, efficient, reasonable Individual in Isolation - most salient feature

62 Focus on the Individual translatedpolitically into a confidence in man’s power of self-government and self- control. NOT DEMOCRACY! The middle class was destined to lead the world to greater material and intellectual progress – more freedom (for middle class) meant greater progress and benefit for society economically into no government interference – middle class free to pursue interests.

63 Political Economy Power of Economics – find natural laws at work in economy. Basic Premises: No restraints on the individual – pursue own interests without interference No restraints on the economy – allow to run according to natural laws in the economy to ensure efficient effective production and distribution of wealth and advance of society.

64 Thomas Malthus 1766-1834 “An Essay on the Principle of Population”

65 Nations & Nationalism Age Of Realism -- 1850-1871Realism, Nationalism, and the Unification Movements of Italy and Germany

66 Crash Course World History: Nationalism

67 What is “state”? What is “nation”? What is “nationalism”? How did Japan “nationalize” after 1868? (Institutions, directives, policies, actions that unified the people under the govt)

68 Realism in Politics “RealPolitik” A new Toughness of MindNo more illusions or Romantic ideals, no Utopian dreams. Deal with things as they are. The future is determined by present realities Reform through power and calculation, not abstract concepts Governments follow own practical interests, make decisions based on real goals and real circumstances, and use any practical means to achieve ends.

69 Crimean War 1853-1855 Ushers in Age of Realism & NationalismOttoman Turkey goaded into war against Russia by French and British, who then ally with Turkey to prevent Russian expansion into Near East. Realistic motives. Austria joins Britain and France so as not to be left out. Piedmont (in Italy) joined French and British to get friends to support the Italian unification issue.

70 Realism but also advances movements of Unification of Italy and GermanyConcert of Europe destroyed Russia and Austria exhausted – the two most powerful obstacles to national unification too weak to stop the tide Piedmont won French support against Austria in bid to unify Italy Prussia not involved in the Crimean War BUT realized that its status as a major state could slip. The only way to run with the Big Dogs was to unify Germany under Prussian leadership.

71 Unification of Italy 1859-1870 Piedmont took the lead.With French help, defeat Austria at battle of Magenta, 1859 North Italy joins Piedmont, accept Victor Immanuel II as king.

72

73 Victor Immanuel II and Camillo Cavour

74 Garibaldi

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76 Disunified Unity: 1861 – Garibaldi Acquiesced 1870 – Pope surrendered central Italy

77 Unification of GermanyCritically important in modern European history Ascendancy of Germany as a unified state becomes the most salient fact and critical issue in the European and international political arena in the late 19th and throughout the 20th centuries. Created a new political power matrix in Europe – disruption of European balance of power

78 Otto von Bismarck Posterchild of Realpolitik

79 Adroit, arrogant, practical, an opportunist – and resolutely realisticAfter appointed Chancellor of Prussian Reichstag in 1862: “It is not through parliamentary speeches or majority votes that the great issues of the day are decided, but by blood and iron.”

80 Realistic plan to unify – eliminate the influence of the three states that had meddled in German affairs – Denmark, Austria, and France Realistic method to unify – “blood and iron”

81 Three Wars With Denmark over Schleswig Holstein 1864With Austria 1866 (North German Confederacy 1867) With France

82 German Empire Jan 1871

83 Results Creation of a united German state under a Prussian king. Bismarck rightly calculated that victories over common foes would fuse the various sovereign German states into a unified empire. Germany replaced France as the preeminent power on continental Europe. It would emerge within decades as an industrial and military colossus.