1 The Building of European Supremacy and the Birth of Modern European ThoughtChapters 23 and 24

2 The Second Industrial RevolutionThe first Industrial Revolution was associated with textiles, steam, and iron; by contrast, the second was associated with steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil. Remember, England took the lead in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century because of a multitude of factors: 1. The English revolutions against the feudalism and the power of the nobles had started in 1641 with Oliver Cromwell—not in 1789, as in France.

3 2. The English revolutions freed up former feudal land that could be used for growing more grain and sheep to produce an agricultural revolution. 3. The agricultural revolution, in England, produced more food at a cheaper price. The agricultural revolution freed many former farmers to work in the city factories. The British Isles were blessed with rich supplies of iron and coal within a very short distance of each other. The English invested heavily in developing a good road and transportation system-by road, canal, and then rail. British merchants, since 1600s, had made huge profits in the international trade of sugar, tea, tobacco, cotton and slaves. They used their profits to invest in such new inventions as iron plows, steamships, coal and iron mines, textile factories, and railways.

4 Britain’s large colonial empire provided raw materials, such as cotton and sugar, in return for the manufactured cloth and iron tools from England’s factories—at a huge profit for England’s merchants. The British government created policies that encouraged industrial growth, lifted restrictions on foreign trade, stimulated canal and road, construction, and provided for a strong navy to protect British merchant ships.

5 Industrialization on the ContinentBetween 1850 and 1871, Continental industrialization came of age. Innovations of British Industrial Revolution: mechanized factory production, the use of coal, the steam engine and the transportation revolution all became common features of economic expansion. This age demonstrated much economic prosperity and saw growth in domestic and foreign markets (excluding depression in and recession in )

6 The transformation of textile production from hand looms to power looms had been completed in Britain in the late 1850s (cotton) and 1860s (wool). This period of expansion on the Continent was fueled not so much by textiles as by the growth of railroads. Between 1850 and 1870, European railroad track mileage increased from 14,500 to almost 70,000. The railroads stimulated growth in both the iron and coal industries.

7 Between 1850 and 1870, Continental iron industries made the transition from charcoal iron smelting to cokeblast smelting. In 1870, the British iron industry produced half the world’s pig iron-four times as much as Germany and five times as much as France. In the middle decades of the 19th century, the textile, mining, and metallurgical industries on the Continent also rapidly converted to the use of steam engine.

8 The expansion of markets attributed to the elimination of barriers to international trade.Essential international waterways were opened up by the elimination of restrictive tolls. The Danube River in 1857 and the Rhine in 1861, for example, were declared freeways for all ships. The negotiation of trade treaties in the 1860s reduced or eliminated protective tariffs throughout much of western Europe.

9 Governments encouraged the formation of joint-stock investment banks.These banks were crucial to Continental industrial development because they mobilized enormous capital resources for investment. In the 1850s and 1860s, they were very important in the promotion of railway construction, although railroads were not always a safe investment. Example: George Stephenson, on a trip to Spain, noticed in not enough people filled the trains. And in 1864, the Spanish banking system, which depended heavily on investments in railway shares, collapsed.

10 Before 1870, capitalist factory owners remained largely free to hire labor on their own terms based on market forces. Although trade unions formed, the unions tended to represent only a small part of the industrial working class and proved largely ineffective. Real change for the industrial proletariat would come only with the development of socialist parties and socialist trade unions. These emerged in 1870, but the theory that made them possible had already been developed by mid century in the work of Karl Marx.

11 Workers of the World Unite!Karl Marx ( ) and Friedrich Engles ( ) were socialists who listened to Robert Owen, but they were not satisfied with “utopian socialism.” They wanted to implement a more revolutionary workers (proletariat) movement that would overthrow the existing rulers and factory owners (bourgeoisie) in order to form a country run by workers. All history, said Marx and Engles in their Communist Manifesto (1848), was a class struggle between the property owners and those without property.

12 In prehistory, there was no personal property; everything was shared in a “communist” society.During the Middle Ages, the kings and nobles held the property and the peasants did not. During the Renaissance and Enlightenment, the growing merchant class became the class with property (the bourgeoisie) and imposed their will on those without property (the proletariat). During the 19th century, the leaders of the industrial revolution (the capitalist factory owners) became the bourgeoisie who imposed their will on their proletariat workers.

13 Eventually, said Marx and Engles, the growing masses of the proletariat would realize their power, rise up to overthrow the bourgeoisie, and create a state run by the proletariat. This would eventually be replaced by a pure communist state in which all property would again be shared. Note: Marx and Engles were not able to implement their plan for a workers’ state during their lifetimes. A revolutionary by the name of Lenin, however, took the ideas of Marx and Engles and created a “communist” state out of Russia in 1917.

14 Science and Culture in an Age of RealismBetween 1850 and 1870, two major intellectual developments are evident: the growth of scientific knowledge, with its rapidly increasing impact on the Western worldview, and the shift from Romanticism and its focus on inner world of reality to Realism and its turning toward the outer, material world.

15 A New Age in Science By mid-19th century, science was having an ever-greater impact on European life. The Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries had fundamentally transformed the Western worldview and led to a modern, rational approach to study of the natural world. The technical advances of the early Industrial Revolution depended little on pure science and much more on practical experiments of technologically oriented amateur inventors. But, advances in the industrial technology fed an interest in basic scientific research which in the 1830s and afterward led to basic scientific discoveries that would be converted into technological improvements affecting many!

16 Steam Engine-encouraged scientists to work out its theoretical foundations, a preoccupation leading to thermodynamics (the science of the relationship between heat and mechanical energy) The laws of thermodynamics were at the core of 19th century physics. In biology, the Frenchman Louis Pasteur formulated the germ theory of disease, which had enormous practical applications in the development of modern scientific medical practices.

17 1860s- Russian, Dmitri Mendeleyev, classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law. Englishman, Michael Faraday, discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electricity, although economically efficient generators were not built until the 1870s.

18 The popularity of science and technological achievement produced widespread acceptance of the scientific method, which, in turn, undermined the faith of many people in religious revelation and truth. No accident that the 19th century was an age of increasing secularization, particularly evident in the growth of materialism, the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was simply the result of physical forces. Truth was to be found in the concrete material existence of human beings and not, as the Romantics imagined, in revelations gained by feeling or intuitive flashes.

19 The importance of materialism was strikingly evident in the most important scientific event of the nineteenth century, the development of the theory of organic evolution according to natural selection. On the theories of Charles Darwin could be built a picture of humans as material beings that were simply part of the natural world. Charles Darwin ( ): Studied theology at Cambridge University with while pursuing an intense side interest in geology and biology.

20 In 1859, Darwin published his book, Origin of the Species, after many years of thoughtful reflection and study. Darwin did not want his book to cause any controversy. The book, however, created a controversy as large as those of Copernicus and Galileo several hundred years earlier when they simply noted that the Earth was not the center of the universe. All Darwin did was announce, after careful study, the four major points of his theory on evolution:

21 Plants and animals do not reproduce identical replicas of their kinds.Organisms, however, do reproduce variations of their kind, often with hereditary traits. Nature allows only those species that are most fit to survive. Out of this struggle for survival comes a process called “the survival of the fittest.”

22 As with Copernicus and Galileo before him, righteous Christian leaders in Europe and the United States raised the alarm that Darwin's theory of evolution was a direct challenge to the Book of Genesis in the Bible, which stated that God created the world in seven days. HOWEVER, what Darwin stated was not new! 18th century naturalists had already classified humans as a type of animal. Geologists and thinkers as far back as da Vinci knew that the fossil record of seashells and bones imbedded in rock thousands of feet above the ocean were clear indications that the Earth was not created in seven days.

23 What Darwin did, however, was simply and clearly state the current consensus of scientific thinking about evolution during the middle of the nineteenth century. Darwin’s theory of evolution also introduced the idea of “progress” to human thinking. Evolution was not a set process determined ahead of time. Humans, through their own choices and hard work, can create “progress” and determine the direction of the future. This Theory of Evolution vs. Creationism is still debated today!

24 A Revolution in Health CareThe application of natural science to health care led to revolutionary breakthroughs in health care. The germ theory of disease: largely the work of Louis Pasteur, a chemist who approached medical problems in a scientific fashion. 1857, he went to Paris where he conducted experiments that proved microorganisms of various kinds were responsible for the process of fermentation, thereby launching the science of bacteriology.

25 Government and private business soon saw the value in Pasteur’s workGovernment and private business soon saw the value in Pasteur’s work. His examination of disease threatening the wine industry led to the development in 1863 of a process—subsequently known as pasteurization -for heating a product to destroy the organisms causing spoilage. 1877-he turned his attention to human diseases: 1885- preventive vaccination against rabies 1890s-the principle of vaccination was extended to diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague, creating a modern immunological science

26 New Surgical Practices:Joseph Lister-develops the antiseptic principle (followed the work of Pasteur and perceived that bacteria might enter a wound and cause infection). Inability to lessen pain of the patient- alcohol and opiates had been used, in 1846 sulfuric ether was successfully used and within a year, chloroform began to rival ether as an anesthetic agent

27 New Public Health Measures:Based on the principle of preventive rather than curative medicine the urban public health movement of the 1840s and 1850s. The prebacteriological hygiene movement focused on: clean water, adequate sewage disposal, and less crowded housing conditions. Bacterial discoveries led to greater emphasis on preventive measures, such as pasteurization of milk, improved purification of water supplies, immunization against disease, and control of waterborne diseases.

28 New Medical Schools New scientific developments also had an important impact on the training of doctors for professional careers in health care. Although there were a few medical schools at the beginning of the 19th century, most medical instruction was still done by a system of apprenticeship. Most Medical schools in Europe, during the 19th century, were closed to female students. When Harriet Hunt applied to Harvard Medical School, the male students drew up resolutions that prevented her admission:

29 Resolved, that no woman of true delicacy would be willing in the presence of men to listen to the discussion of subjects that necessarily come under consideration of the students of medicine. Resolved, that we object to having the company of any female forced upon us, who is disposed to unsex herself, and to sacrifice her modesty by appearing with men in the lecture room.

30 Elizabeth Blackwell (1812-1910) achieved the first major breakthrough for women in medicine.She received her M.D. degree in 1849 and eventually established a clinic in New York City European women also experienced difficulties: Elizabeth Garret and Sophia Jex-Blake struggled for years before they were finally admitted to the practice of medicine. The unwillingness of medical schools to admit women led to separate medical schools for women (ex: London School of Medicine for Women in 1874), however, women faced obstacles when they graduated: many denied licenses, hospitals often closed their doors

31 By the late 1890s universities in Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Russia, and Belgium were admitting women to medical training and practice. However, women were not given full membership in the American Medical Association until 1915.

32 Science and the Study of SocietyThe attempt to apply the methods of science systematically to the study of society was perhaps most evident in the work of Frenchman Auguste Comte ( ). His major work: System of Positive Philosophy was published between 1837 and 1842 but had its real impact after 1850 Comte created a system of “positive knowledge” based on hierarchy of all sciences.

33 Mathematics was the foundation on which the physical sciences, earth sciences, and biological sciences were built. At the top was sociology, the science of human society, which for Comte incorporated economics, anthropology, history, and social psychology. Comte played an important role in the growing popularity of science and materialism in the mid-19th century.

34 Realism in Literature Realism:Belief the world should be viewed realistically, frequently expressed in 1850 (mid 19th century) and was closely related to the materialistic outlook Deliberate rejection of Romanticism Wanted to deal with ordinary characters from real life rather than Romantic heroes in unusual settings. Sought to avoid flowery and sentimental language by using careful observation and accurate description, an approach that led Realists to eschew poetry in favor of prose and the novel

35 Realists often combined their interest in everyday life with a searching examination of social questions. Leading novelist of the 1850s and 1860s, Frenchman Gustave Flaubert Madame Bovary was a straightforward description of barren and sordid small-town life in France. Emma Bovary, a woman of some vitality, is trapped in a marriage to a drab provincial doctor. Impelled by romantic love images that she had read in a novel, she seeks the same thing for herself in adulterous affairs. Unfulfilled, she eventually commits suicide. Flaubert’s contempt for bourgeois society was evident in his portrayal of middle-class hypocrisy and smugness.

36 William Thackery: wrote Britain’s prototypical Realist novel, Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero, in 1848. Perhaps the greatest of the Victorian novelists was Charles Dickens ( ), whose realistic novels focusing on the lower can middle classes in Britain’s early industrial age became extraordinarily successful. His descriptions of the urban poor and the brutalization of human life were vividly realistic.

37 The French became leaders in Realist painting.Realism in Art After 1850, Realism became dominant, however, Romanticism was not dead. Among the most important characteristics of Realism are a desire to depict the everyday life of ordinary people: peasants, workers, or prostitutes; an attempt at photographic realism’ and an interest in the natural environment. The French became leaders in Realist painting.

38 Gustave Courbet Most famous artist of the Realism, in fact, the term realism was first coined in 1850 to describe one of his paintings. He reveled in a realistic portrayal of everyday life. His subjects were factory workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers. His painting, The Stonebreakers, he sought to portray things as they really appear. He shows an old road builder and his young assistant in their tattered clothes, engrossed in their dreary work of breaking stones to construct a road. The use of browns and grays help communicate the drudgery of their task.

39 Gustave Courbet, The Stonebreakers

40 OPTIC: The Painter’s Studio; A Real Allegory

41 Jean-Francois Millet Preoccupied with scenes from rural life, especially peasants laboring in the fields, although his paintings still held an element of Romantic sentimentality. The Gleaners, his most famous work, showed the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature. Millet made landscape and country life an important subject matter for French artists.

42 Millet, The Gleaners

43 Mass Society and an “Age of Progress,” 1871-1894The First Revolution had given rise to textiles, railroads, iron, and coal. In the second revolution, steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum led the way to new industrial frontiers. The first major change in industrial development after the 1870 was the substitution of steel for iron. Great Britain had produced twice as much steel as Germany in 1870s, by 1910, German production was double that of Great Britain. And, both surpassed the United States in 1890. Great Britain also fell behind in the new chemical industry.

44 Electricity was a major new form of energy that proved to be of great value since it could be easily converted into other forms of energy, such as heat, light, and motion. In the 1870s, the first commercially practical generators of electrical current were developed. By 1881, Britain had its first public power station. By 1910, hydroelectric power stations and coal-fired steam-generating plants enabled entire districts to be tied in to a single power distribution system that provided a common source of power for homes, shops and industrial enterprises.

45 Electricity started a whole series of inventions:Lightbulb- American Thomas Edison Homes and cities to illumination by electric lights- Briton Joseph Swan Telephone, Alexander Graham Bell First Radio Waves across the Atlantic in Guglielomo Marconi First Electric Railway installed in Berlin- 1879 By 1880s, street cars and subways had appeared in major cities and began to replace horse-drawn buses.

46 The Internal Combustion EngineFirst internal combustion engine, fired by gas and air was produced in It proved unsuitable for widespread power source until the development of liquid fuels- petroleum. By the end of the 19th century, some naval fleets had been converted to oil burners as well. The development of internal combustion engines gave rise to the automobile and airplane. Gottlieb Daimler’s invention of the light engine in 1886 was the key development of the automobile. It was American, Henry Ford, who revolutionized the car industry with the mass production of the Model T.

47 The air transportation began with the Zeppelin airship in 1900.1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina- Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing plan powered by a gasoline engine. The first regular passenger air service was not established until 1919.

48 Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual and Cultural DevelopmentsBefore 1914, most people continued to believe in the values and ideals that had been generated by the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. The ability of human beings to achieve a better society seemed to be demonstrated by a rising standard of living, urban improvements, and mass education. Near the end of the 19th century, a dramatic change in the realm of ideas and culture challenged many of these assumptions.

49 A new view of the physical universe, an appeal to the irrational, alternative views of nature, and radically innovative forms of literary and artistic expression shattered old beliefs and opened the way to a modern consciousness. These ideas will create a sense of confusion and anxiety which will be enhanced after World War I. Science: Throughout the 19th century, Westerners adhered to the mechanized world pronounced by Isaac Newton: universe is like a giant machine in which, time, space and matter were objective realities that existed independently of those observing them and matter was composed of indivisible material bodies called atoms.

50 These views were questioned at the end of the 19th centuryFrench scientist, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre discovered that radium gave off rays of radiation that apparently came from within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply hard, material bodies but small worlds containing subatomic particles as electrons and protons that behaved in a somewhat random fashion. Inquiry into this process became the center of New Physics.

51 1900, Berlin physicist, Max Planck, maintained that energy is radiated discontinuously in irregular packets called quanta. The quantum theory raised fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of the atom. Uh oh, by the end of the 1900s, old views of atoms as the basic building blocks of the universe and Newtonian physics was in trouble!

52 German-born patent officer working in Switzerland Albert Einstein German-born patent officer working in Switzerland 1905, he published a paper titled “The ElectroDynamics of Moving Bodies” that contained his special theory of relativity. Relativity theory: space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into what Einstein called four-dimensional space-time continuum. Neither space nor time had an existence independent of human experience.

53 Einstein concluded that matter was nothing but another from of energy.His formula E=MC2 each particle of matter is equivalent to its mass times the square of the velocity of light This was the key theory explaining the vast energies contained within in the atom. It led to the atomic age. Einstein’s theory of relativity confirmed in 1919, during an eclipse, scientists were able to demonstrate that light was deflected in the gravitational field of the sun.

54 Toward an Understanding of the IrrationalIn the decades prior to 1914, the influence of science, human reason and progress remained a dominant aspect of the intellectual world. However, a small group of intellectuals attacked the optimistic progress, dethroned reason, and glorified the irrational. Friedrich Nietzche: Glorified the irrational Western bourgeios society was decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity because of the emphasis on reason at the expense of emotion.

55 Nietzche claimed that reason played a little role in human life because humans were at the mercy of irrational life forces. He believed Christianity was in part to blame as the “slave morality” of Christianity had ruined the human impulse for life and crushed human will. How could Western society be renewed? One must recognize “God is dead.” The Europeans had killed god, he said, and it was no longer possible to believe in some kind of cosmic order. Eliminating God and hence Christian morality had liberated humans and allowed them to create a higher kind of being which Nietzche called the superman.

56 Superior intellectuals must free themselves from the ordinary thinking of the masses, create their own values, and lead the masses. Nietzche rejected political democracy, social reform, and universal suffrage. Henri Bergson: Another popular revolutionary against reason in the 1890s French philosopher whose lectures at the University of Paris was influential in 20th century French thought

57 Bergson accepted rational, scientific thought as a basis for useful knowledge but believed that it was incapable of arriving at truth or ultimate reality. Reality was a “life force” that covered all things; it could not be divided into analyzable parts, it was a whole that could be understood intuitively and experienced directly. When we analyze it, we have merely a description, no longer the reality we have experienced.

58 Georges Sorel: A French political theorist, combined Bergson’s and Nietzche’s ideas on limits of rational thinking with his own passionate interest in revolutionary socialism. Advocated violent action as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism To destroy capitalism, he recommended the use of a general strike – inspire workers to take violent, heroic action against the capitalist order. Sorel also believed that the new socialist society would have to be governed by a small elite ruling body because the masses were incapable of ruling themselves.

59 Simund Freud and PsychonanalysisBeginning of the 20th century, Viennese doctor, series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of human mind. Freud, like the new physics and irrationalism of Nietzche, added to the uncertainties of the age. His ideas are published in 1900, The Interpretation of Dreams, contained the basic foundation for psychoanalysis.

60 The Role of the UnconsciousHuman behavior was strongly determined by the unconscious, by earlier experiences and inner forces of which people were largely oblivious. To explore the unconscious, Freud relied not only on hypnosis but also on dreams. But dreams were masked in an elaborate code that had to be deciphered if the content were to be properly understood.

61 Why did some experiences that influence a person’s life remain unconscious?Repression- a process by which unsettling experiences were blotted from conscious awareness but still continued to influence behavior because they had become part of the unconscious. He provided an intricate theory on the inner life of human beings to explain how repression worked.

62 A human being’s inner life was a battleground between three forces: the id, ego, and superego.Id: center of unconscious and drives and was ruled by what Freud termed the pleasure principle. As creatures of desire we directed our energy toward pleasure rather than pain. The id contained all kinds of lustful drives and desires to crude impulses. Ego: seat of reason and coordinator for inner life. It was governed by the reality principle. Although dominated by pleasure, a true pursuit of pleasure. The reality principle meant that people rejected pleasure so they might live together in society.

63 Superego: represented the inhibitions and moral values that society in general and parents in particular imposed on people. The superego served to force the ego to overpower the unsatisfactory drives of the id. The most important repressions were sexual and he went on to develop a theory of infantile sexual drives embodied in the Oedipus complex (Electra complex for females) or the exclusive possession of the parent of the opposite sex which begins in childhood. Although, many of Freud’s ideas have been shown to be wrong, he is still regarded as important based on his theories.

64 The Impact of DarwinismThe second half of the 19th century, scientific theories were sometimes wrongly applied to achieve other ends. The application of Darwin’s principle of organic evolution to the social order came to be known as social Darwinism. Social Darwinism: Most popular exponent is British philosopher Herbert Spencer. Societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment. Progress came from the “survival for survival,” as the “fit”- the strong, advanced while the weak declined. Spencer’s book, Social Statics discusses the application of Darwin and argues that the state should not intervene in this natural process.

65 Racism: Darwin’s ideas were also applied to human society in an even more radical way by rabid nationalists and racists. In their pursuit for national greatness, extreme nationalists argued that nations too, were engaged in a struggle for existence” in which only the fittest survive. Racism was strengthened by new biological arguments. Perhaps no where was the combination of extreme nationalism and racism was more dangerous and evident in Germany.

66 The concept of Volk (nation, people, or race) had been underlying idea in German history since the beginning of the 19th century. Chief propagandists for German volkish thought at the turn of the 20th century was Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an Englishman who became a German citizen. The Foundations of the 19th Century, 1899, made a special impact on Germany—Chamberlain said that Modern-day Germans were the only pure successors of the “Aryans,” who were portrayed as the true and original creators of Western culture.

67 The Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of such lower races as Jews, Negroes, and Orientals. Increasingly, Jews were singled out by German volkish nationalists as the racial enemy in biological terms and as parasites who wanted to destroy the Aryan race.

68 The Culture of ModernityLiterature: Before 1914, writers and artists were rebelling against the traditional literary and artistic styles that had dominated Europe since the Renaissance. The changes produced have since been called Modernism Naturalism: dominated late 19th century, accepted material world as real and felt that literature should be realistic. Address social problems, continuation of Realism, however, it lacked the underlying note of liberal optimism about people and society that had been prevalent in the 1850s. The Naturalists were often pessimistic about Europe’s future and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of forces beyond their control.

69 French writer Emile Zola- good example of NaturalismZola, using urban slums and coalfields, showed how alcoholism and different environments affected people’s lives. He had read Darwin’s Origins of the Species and was impressed on his emphasis of survival and the importance of environment and heredity. Themes central to his Rougon-Macquart, 20 volume series of novels on “natural and social history of family.”

70 Second half of 19th century was a golden age for Russian literature:Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace, novel played out against the historical background of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812. Fyodor Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov, only through suffering and faith could the human soul be purified, views that are evident in his best-known works.

71 Symbolism: Turn of the century a new group of writers reacting against Realism Primarily interested in writing poetry Objective knowledge of the world impossible External world was not real but only a collection of symbols that reflected the true reality of the individual human mind. Art should function for its own sake instead of serving, criticizing, or seeking to understand society. Symbolist poets: W.B. Yeats and Rainier Maria Rilke, Only through the knowledge of the poet’s personal language could one hope to understand what the poem was saying.

72 Camillo Pissaro, one of Impressionist founders Modernism in Art Impressionism: originated in France in the 1870s when a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went out to the countryside to paint nature directly. Example: Camillo Pissaro, one of Impressionist founders Claude Monet, enchanted with water and painted pictures in which he sought to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere.

73 Impression Sunrise

74 Another important impressionist painter:Berthe Morisot, broke the practice of women being only amateur artists and became a professional painter. Her special touch is evident in the lighter colors and flowing brush strokes of Young Girl by the Window.

75 Post-Impressionism By the 1880s, a new movement known as Post-Impressionism arose in France and soon spread to other European countries. Retained the Impressionists use of light and color but revolutionized it even further by paying more attention to structure and form. Sought to use color and line to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality rather than an imitation of objects. Impressionists maintained a certain degree of realism whereas Post-Impressionism shifted from objective reality to subjective reality. Post-Impressionism was the real beginning of modern art.

76 Paul Cezanne, most important post-impressionists, initially influenced by Impressionists and later rejects them. Woman with a Coffee Pot, Cezanne sought to express visually the underlying geometric structure and form of everything he painted.

77 Vincent van Gogh Post-Impressionist, Dutch painter, to him art was a spiritual experience, interested in color, maintained that artists should paint what they feel. The Starry Night, 1889, was van Gogh’s subjective vision was given full play as the dynamic swirling forms of the heavens above overwhelm the village below. The heavens seem alive with a mysterious spiritual force. Van Gogh painted this work in an asylum one year before he committed suicide.

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79 By the 20th century, the belief that the task of art was to represent “reality” had lost much of its meaning. By this time, psychology and new physics all showed that people weren’t sure what constituted reality. Also, the development of photography gave artists another reason to reject visual realism. 1830s photography invented, became widespread when George Eastman produced the first Kodak camera for mass market in 1888.

80 Unlike the camera that could only mirror reality, artists could create reality.Individual consciousness became the source of meaning. , search for individual expression produced a wide variety of schools of painting, all of which had their greatest impact after WWI. 1905, Pablo Picasso, important figure of modern art Extremely flexible and painted in a variety of styles Instrumental in the development of a new style called Cubism Used geometric designs as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer’s mind. 1907,Les Demoiselles D’Avignon, first Cubist painting

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82 The modern artist’s flight from “visual reality” reached a high point in 1910 with the beginning of abstract painting. A Russian who worked in Germany, Wassily Kandinsky, one of the founders of abstract painting Square with White Border Sought to avoid representation altogether Art should speak directly to the soul and so it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color.

83 Medieval- Gothic Impressionism Renaissance Post-Impressionism Art Attack! Try and identify the art movement that the following paintings seem to exemplify. Your choices so far: Medieval- Gothic Impressionism Renaissance Post-Impressionism Mannerism Cubism Baroque Neoclassical Rococo Realism *Bonus try and identify the artist or who is depicted in the painting depicts 

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85 Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, Neoclassical artist

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87 Claude Monet, Japanese Bridge Over the Water Lily Pond, Impressionism

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89 The Sistine Madonna, by RaphaelRenaissance

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91 Pablo Picasso, Bread, Fruit, and Table,Cubism