1 The Futile Search for a New Stability: Chapter 26 The Futile Search for a New Stability: Europe between the Wars,

2 An Uncertain Peace: The Search for SecurityWeaknesses of the League of Nations (U.S. not in it and Soviet Union not invited) Desire for strict enforcement the Treaty of Versailles Allied Reparations Commission, April 1921 $33 billion Paid in annual installments of billion gold marks Germany unable to pay in 1922 (print money like crazy--inflation) French occupation of the Ruhr Valley (allies take coal/steel from Germany) German mark falls to 4.2 trillion to $1. U.S. by the end of November 1923 Dawes Plan (U.S gives 6 billion to rebuild Germany economy) Gustav Stresemann ( ) German foreign minister Treaty of Locarno (Germany to respect western boarders 1925 and the Kellogg/Briand Pact (war not to be used as n instrument of foreign policy) 1927

3 German Soup Kitchen Woman with a soup bowl on her way to a soup kitchen in Germany in 1930. p. 812

4 The Effects of Inflation.The inflationary pressures that had begun in Germany at the end of World War I intensified during the French occupation of the Ruhr. By the early 1920s, the value of the German mark had fallen precipitously. This photograph shows German children using bundles of worthless money as building blocks. The wads of money were cheaper than toys. p. 814

5 The Little Entente. France signs treaties with Poland to keep Germany in check in the east. France signs another treaty with Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia to check Soviet expansion in the east. p. 814

6 The Great Depression Problems in domestic economies of Europe and America International financial crisis (reparations to allies and loans from allies not paid back) Crash of the American stock market in October 1929, which affects European markets as trade comes to a halt) Social repercussions (unemployment) Powerlessness of governments (to fix economic problems)

7 The Great Depression: Bread Lines in Paris.The Great Depression devastated the European economy and had serious political repercussions. Because of its more balanced economy, France did not feel the effects of the depression as quickly as other European countries. By 1931, however, even France was experiencing lines of unemployed people at free-food centers. p. 816

8 The Democratic States Great Britain FranceLabour Party failed to solve problems Coalition claimed credit for prosperity John Maynard Keynes ( ) Keynes says the government should create jobs France Was the strongest power in Europe Could not solve financial problems Popular Front World War II ends the depression

9 The Democratic States (cont)The Scandinavian States Socialist parties Expanded social services High taxes and large bureaucracies The United States Herbert Hoover, ( ) Franklin D. Roosevelt, ( ) New Deal Public Works

10 Chronology, p. 820

11 Retreat from Democracy: The Authoritarian and Totalitarian StatesTotalitarianism By 1939 only France and Great Britain are democracies left in Europe Elements of the modern totalitarian state: Active commitment of citizens (state first above the individual) Mass propaganda techniques (radio and movies) Youth Movements Women seen as homemakers and mothers War is the highest expression of the state Led by single leader and single party

12 Fascist Italy Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)Italians angry over failure to receive any colonial territory after World War I (multi-party system not working). Squadristi are armed unemployed soldiers (pre-fascists). Mussolini will turn them into a political party and get rid of (purge) the other popular fascist leader Gabriel D'Annunzio (blames his accident on the socialists). High illiteracy rate and extreme poverty in southern Italy. Growth of the socialist party is propagated as the real problem in Italy. Fascist movement gains support from northern conservative industrialists who are worried about the socialist movement. March on Rome (several thousand Black Shirts) to demand that Mussolini be appointed prime minister—and he is on October 29, 1922. From 1922 to 1924 Mussolini works with Parliament—he is not seen as a threat to Italy’s democracy.

13 Mussolini and the Italian Fascist StateViolence between the socialists and Fascists erupts In 1923, he urges Parliament to pass the Acerbo Law which gives any political party with 25% of the vote 2/3 seats in the parliament—put Fascists in control. The Socialist leader Giacomo Matteoti is murdered. Mussolini claims it is a socialist conspiracy to discredit the Fascists, but later admits it was a group of Fascists—he claims responsibility (buck stops here) and it does not hurt him politically. More violence erupts, so he asks parliament for “temporary dictatorship powers.” All other parties are then outlawed in 1926 – Fascist dictatorship is established under “Il Duce” (the leader). Lateran Accords (agreements with the Catholic Church) in February Vatican City independent, Catholicism the sole religion in Italy, and the church promotes Fascism. Italy never achieves the degree of totalitarianism like Germany or Soviet Union.

14 Territory Gained by Italy.p. 823

15 Mussolini, the Iron Duce.One of Mussolini’s favorite images of himself was that of the Iron Duce—the strong leader who is always right. Consequently, he was often seen in military-style uniforms and military poses. This photograph shows Mussolini in one of his numerous uniforms with his Blackshirt bodyguards giving the Fascist salute. p. 824

16 Chronology, p. 826

17 Hitler and Nazi GermanyWeimar Germany and the Rise of the Nazis No real charismatic Chancellors in the Republic, but Paul von Hindenberg (war hero) elected president in 1925. With the Great Depression, Germany collapsed economically. Unemployed soldiers “Freikorps” protest. Adolf Hitler ( ) from Vienna (Hitler’s background) Joined the German Army, after the war unemployed in Munich, he joins the small German Workers’ Party (DAP) but it was Hitler would change it to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NAZI) in 1921, and makes it a strong political party. Sturmabteilung (SA), Brown Shirts/Storm Troops led by Ernst Rohm were the unemployed soldiers and new members that reached out to the people with bread, soup, and voter influence. Munich Beer Hall Putsch, November 1923 Hitler imprisoned (sentenced to 5 yrs. but serves 6 months) Mein Kampf, (My Struggle) in which he speaks of Lebensraum (living space) for Germany, Aryan racial superiority, the coming of War, and the Jewish problem.

18 Hitler and Nazi Germany (cont.)Hitler forms his own elite faction within the Nazi Party called the SS (Black Shirts). Communist Party (Jews) were propagated as the real problem in Germany. Violence between the Communists and Nazis was wide spread. Nazi party was largest in the Reichstag after 1932 election, with support from conservative elites who feared communism. Hitler appointed becomes chancellor on January 30, 1933. Reichstag Fire, February 27, Hiller blames it on a Dutch Communist Jew—Nazi’s actually set the fire. Hitler uses the event to ask the Reichstag for “temporary dictatorship powers.” The Enabling Act is passed on March 23, 1933. All other parties are then outlawed, press is censored, the constitution is replaced with a Fascist (Nazi version w/racial ideology) dictatorship in Germany under Hitler.

19 The Nazi State or Third Reich(1933-1937)To gain the support of the regular military and to deal with the constant rivalry within the Nazi party, Hitler initiates the “Night of Long Knifes” (political purge) in which Ernst Rohm and his supporters are killed. Hitler gains total control over the Nazi Party, SS, and SA, and the military in 1934. At the top of Third Reich machine was Hitler “Der Fuhrer” (the leader), Heinrich Himmler (as head of the Gestapo or secret police), Joseph Goebbels (the Propaganda Minister), and Herman Goering (head of the Luftwaffe). Economics improve through public works projects and unemployment for Germans drops from 6 million in 1932 to 500k in Government buildings, stadiums, the first autobahn. Gleichschaltung, coordination of all institutions under Nazi control. Churches, schools, and universities now under Nazi control and propaganda. Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) and Bund Deutscher Mädel (League of German Maidens). Mass public rallies with lots of symbolism and Aryan mysticism used to gain full Nazi support.

20 Hitler and the Blood Flag Ritual.In developing his mass political movement, Adolf Hitler used ritualistic ceremonies as a means of binding party members to his own person. Here Hitler is shown touching the ‘‘blood flag,’’ which had supposedly been stained with the blood of Nazis killed during the Beer Hall Putsch, to an SS banner while the SS standard-bearer makes a ‘‘blood oath’’ of allegiance: ‘‘I vow to remain true to my Führer, Adolf Hitler. I bind myself to carry out all orders conscientiously and without reluctance. Standards and flags shall be sacred to me.’’ The SS originated as Hitler’s personal bodyguard and later became a secret police force and instrument of terror in the Nazi state. p. 828

21 The Nazi Mass Spectacle.Hitler and the Nazis made clever use of mass spectacles to rally the German people behind the Nazi regime. These mass demonstrations evoked intense enthusiasm, as is evident in this photograph of Hitler arriving at the Bückeberg near Hamelin for the Harvest Festival in Almost one million people were present for the celebration. p. 831

22 A scene from Triumph of the Will showing one of the many mass rallies at Nuremberg.

23 Chronology, p. 832

24 The Soviet Union Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP)Small scale capitalism allowed Union of Socialist Republics established, 1922 Revived economy Lenin suffers strokes, ( ) Political Division Leon Trotsky Commissar of War Discontinue the NEP Focus on spreading communism abroad Joseph Stalin General party secretary Continue the NEP (temporarily) Focus on Communism at home

25

26 Stalin Signing a Death Warrant.Terror played an important role in the authoritarian system created by Joseph Stalin. Here Stalin is shown signing what is supposedly a death warrant in As the terror increased in the late 1930s, Stalin signed such orders every day. p. 834

27 Stalin Era, (1929-1939) Rapid collectivization of agricultureStalin used his post a General Secretary to out maneuver Trotsky. Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party and fled to Mexico, where he was later murdered by Stalin’s men in 1940. First Five Year Plan, 1928 Emphasis on building industry, real wages declined, people worked to death to achieve goals, and use of propaganda was wide spread. Rapid collectivization of agriculture Famine of ; million peasants died in the Ukraine (ethnic cleansing). Political control Stalin dictatorship established in 1929 Political purge, ; 8 million party members, military leaders, and intellectuals were arrested and killed or worked to death.

28 Chronology, p. 834

29 Authoritarianism in Other parts of EuropeConservative authoritarian governments Eastern Europe Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia adopted parliamentary systems Romania and Bulgaria gained new parliamentary constitutions Greece became a republic Hungary parliamentary in form; controlled by landed aristocrats Problems Little or no tradition of liberalism and parliamentary form Rural and agrarian society Ethnic conflicts Spain and civil war Francisco Franco (Spanish Fascists)

30 Eastern Europe After World War I.

31 The Destruction of Guernica.On April 26, 1937, the German Condor Legion dropped 100,000 tons of explosives in three hours on the small Basque town of Guernica, killing 1,654 people and wounding 889. The first illustration shows the ruins of Guernica after the German attack. The scene was also captured in Picasso’s Guernica (1937), a large (11 by 25 feet) Cubist piece that portrays the horror and human destruction caused by mass bombings. The fragmented bodies include a woman holding her dead child, dismembered limbs, and terrified horses. p. 838

32 The Destruction of Guernica.On April 26, 1937, the German Condor Legion dropped 100,000 tons of explosives in three hours on the small Basque town of Guernica, killing 1,654 people and wounding 889. The first illustration shows the ruins of Guernica after the German attack. The scene was also captured in Picasso’s Guernica (1937), a large (11 by 25 feet) Cubist piece that portrays the horror and human destruction caused by mass bombings. The fragmented bodies include a woman holding her dead child, dismembered limbs, and terrified horses. p. 838

33 Chronology, p. 839

34 Radio and Movies: Mass forms of Communication & EntertainmentNellie Melba, June 16, 1920 BBC, 1926 Movies Quo Vadis; Birth of a Nation Stars became subjects of adoration Marlene Dietrich Used for political purposes Nazis encourage cheap radios Triumph of the Will, 1934

35 Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass LeisureThe Roaring Twenties Berlin, the entertainment center of Europe Cabarets, etc. Josephine Baker ( ) Jazz Age

36 The Charleston. Dancing became the rage during the Roaring Twenties, and the Charleston was the most popular and enduring dance of the decade. This photograph shows a couple dancing the Charleston in a scene from a London musical, Just a Kiss, performed in 1926. p. 839

37 Cultural & Intellectual Trends in the Interwar YearsPrewar avant-garde culture becomes acceptable (abstract, cabarets, flappers style, etc.) Political, economic, and social insecurities Marie Stopes Married Love (emphasizes sexual pleasure in marriage) Theodor van de Velde Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique Nightmares and New Visions: Art and Music Abstract painting; fascination with the absurd Dadaism (anti-art—purposelessness of life) Tristan Tzara ( ) Surrealism (the art of fantasies, dreams, or nightmares) Salvador Dali ( ) Functional Architecture (reinforced concrete, steel frames, rows of windows, geometric shapes) Bauhaus School in Germany Frank Lloyd Wright in America

38 Music, Literature & Physics Between the WarsArnold Schönberg ( ) Atonal music (notes independent of any tonal key) The Search for the Unconscious (stream of consciousness) James Joyce ( ), Ulysses Virginia Woolf ( ) Jacob’s Room Hermann Hesse ( ) Steppenwolf Impact of Freud (repressed desires and the Ego & Id) Carl Jung ( ) challenges Freud’s unconscious views—personal unconscious and collective unconscious. The “Heroic Age of Physics” Albert Einstein ( ), relativity theory Ernest Rutherford ( ), atom could be split Werner Heisenberg ( ), “uncertainty principle”

39 Otto Dix, The War. In The War, Otto Dix used the traditional format of a triptych—a three-paneled painting usually used as an altarpiece—to demonstrate the devastating effects of World War I. In the left panel, soldiers march off to battle, while the results of the battlefield are shown in the center and right panels in the contorted and mutilated bodies riddled with bullets. The coffinlike bottom panel is filled with dead soldiers. Dix portrayed himself in the right panel as a ghostlike soldier towing a fellow soldier from battle. p. 843

40 Hannah Höch, Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada Through the Last Weimar Beer Belly Cultural Epoch of Germany. Hannah Höch, a prominent figure in the postwar Dada movement, used photomontage to create images that reflected on women’s issues. In Cut with the Kitchen Knife (1919), she combined pictures of German political leaders with sports stars, Dada artists, and scenes from urban life. One major theme emerged: the confrontation between the anti-Dada world of German political leaders and the Dada world of revolutionary ideals. Höch associated women with Dada and the new world. p. 843

41 Salvador Dalí, The Persistence of Memory.Surrealism was another important artistic movement between the wars. Influenced by the theories of Freudian psychology, Surrealists sought to reveal the world of the unconscious, or the ‘‘greater reality’’ that they believed existed beyond the world of physical appearances. As is evident in this 1931 painting, Salvador Dalí sought to portray the world of dreams by painting recognizable objects in unrecognizable relationships. p. 844

42 Walter Gropius, The Bauhaus.Walter Gropius was one of Europe’s pioneers in modern architecture. When the Bauhaus moved to Dessau in 1925, Gropius designed a building for its activities. His straightforward use of steel, reinforced concrete, and rows of windows reflects the move to functionalism in modern architecture. p. 844

43 Timeline, p. 847

44 Discussion Questions What were the causes of the Great Depression?What did France feel it needed for security after the Great War? How does this affect Germany? What were the characteristics of Nazi Germany? What were the characteristics of Stalin’s Soviet Union? Describe the art trends of this period? What were the lasting affects of these trends? How did totalitarian governments manipulate art?