1 The Language of CompositionChapter 1: An Introduction to Rhetoric, Using the “Available Means”

2 Rhetoric The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” At its best, rhetoric is a thoughtful, reflective activity leading to effective communication, including the rational exchange of opposing viewpoints. In Aristotle’s day and in ours, those who understand and can use the available means to appeal to an audience of one or many find themselves in a position of strength. They have the tools to resolve conflicts without confrontation, to persuade readers or listeners to support their position, or to move others to take action.

3 Occasion, Context, and Purpose With Farewell Speech, by Lou GehrigWhy is this an effective speech? First of all, rhetoric is always situational. It has an occasion — the time and place the text was written or spoken. The occasion exists within a specific context — the circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding the text. Purpose is the goal the speaker wants to achieve. In the case of Gehrig’s speech, the occasion is Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day. More specifically, his moment comes at home plate between games of a doubleheader. The context is first and foremost Gehrig’s recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but as is often the case, the context goes well beyond that. Gehrig, known as the Iron Horse, held the record for consecutive games played (2,130) and was one of the greatest sluggers of all time. For such a durable and powerful athlete to fall victim to a disease that strips away strength and coordination seemed an especially cruel fate. Just a couple of weeks earlier, Gehrig was still playing ball; but by the time he gave this speech, he was so weak that his manager had to help him walk out to the mound for the ceremony.

4 Occasion, Context, and Purpose With Farewell Speech, by Lou GehrigOne of Gehrig’s chief purposes in delivering this speech is to thank his fans and his teammates, but he also wants to demonstrate that he remains positive: he emphasizes his past luck and present optimism and downplays his illness. He makes a single reference to the diagnosis and does so in the strong, straightforward language of an athlete: he got a “bad break.” There is no blame, no self-pity, no plea for sympathy. Throughout, he maintains his focus: to thank his fans and teammates for their support and get on with watching the ballgame. Gehrig responds as a true Yankee, not just the team but the can-do Yankee spirit of America, by acknowledging his illness and accepting his fate with dignity, honor, humility, and even a touch of humor.

5 The Rhetorical TriangleDon’t think of the speaker solely as a name, but consider a description of who the speaker is in the context of the text. The speaker of the speech we just read is not just Lou Gehrig, but baseball hero and ALS victim Lou Gehrig. Sometimes, there is a slight difference between who the speaker is in real life and the role the speaker plays when delivering the speech. This is called a persona. Persona comes from the Greek word for “mask”; it means the face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience. Lou Gehrig is a famous baseball hero, but in his speech he presents himself as a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he’s had.

6 The Rhetorical TriangleThe audience is the listener, viewer, or reader of a text or performance, but it is important to note that there may be multiple audiences. When making rhetorical decisions, speakers ask what values their audiences hold, particularly whether the audience is hostile, friendly, or neutral and how informed it is on the topic at hand. Sure, Gehrig’s audience was his teammates and the fans in the stadium that day, but it was also the teams he played against, the fans listening on the radio, and posterity — us.

7 The Rhetorical TriangleThe subject is the topic. And the subject should not be confused with the purpose, which is the goal the speaker wants to achieve. Gehrig’s subject is his illness, but it is also a catalog of all the lucky breaks that preceded his diagnosis.

8 SOAPS With A Letter by Albert EinsteinIn discussing the rhetorical situation surrounding a text, we’ve talked about some of the background that you should consider (like the occasion, context, and purpose) and relationships that are more directly related to the text (like those among the speaker, audience, and subject). One way to remember all of these things is to use the acronym SOAPS, which stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker. It’s a mnemonic device that offers a practical way to approach the concept of the rhetorical situation. Think of it as a kind of checklist that helps you organize your ideas rhetorically. Let’s use SOAPS to look at the rhetorical situation in a letter written by Albert Einstein.

9 SOAPS With 9/11 Speech by George W. BushSpeaker Occasion Audience Purpose Subject

10 Ethos, Logos, and Pathos

11 Ethos Speakers appeal to ethos (Greek for “character”) to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy. Think, for example, of a speech discouraging teenagers from drinking. Speakers might appeal to ethos by stressing that they are concerned parents, psychologists specializing in alcoholism or adolescent behavior, or recovering alcoholics themselves. Appeals to ethos often emphasize shared values between the speaker and the audience: when a parent speaks to other parents in the same community, they share a concern for their children’s education or well-being.

12 Examples of Ethos from The Myth of the Latin Woman: I Just Met a Girl Named Maria Judith Ortiz Cofer The King’s Speech (September 3, 1939) King George VI Automatic Ethos Let’s look at an example of how a speaker’s title or status automatically brings ethos to the rhetorical situation. On September 3, 1939, King George VI gave a radio address to the British people declaring that the country was at war with Germany. The very fact that he is king gives him a certain degree of automatic ethos to speak on the subject of war, yet King George also emphasizes the shared values that unite everyone. So, what do you do if you’re not a king? Writers and speakers often have to build their ethos by explaining their credentials or background to their readers, or by emphasizing shared values. You’re more likely to listen to someone who is qualified to speak on a subject or who shares your interests and concerns. Following is the opening from “The Myth of the Latin Woman: I Just Met a Girl Named Maria” by Judith Ortiz Cofer. Note how she draws on her own Puerto Rican heritage as she describes her experience with prejudice as a young Latina

13 Logos Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas. Appealing to logos (Greek for “embodied thought”) means thinking logically — having a clear main idea and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back it up. Creating a logical argument often involves defining the terms of the argument and identifying connections such as causality. It can also require considerable research. Evidence from expert sources and authorities, facts, and quantitative data can be very persuasive if selected carefully and presented accurately. Sometimes, writers and speakers add charts and graphs as a way to present such information, but often they weave this information into their argument.

14 Logos – Conceding and RefutingOne way to appeal to logos is to acknowledge a counterargument — that is, to anticipate objections or opposing views. While you might worry that raising an opposing view might poke a hole in your argument, you’ll be vulnerable if you ignore ideas that run counter to your own. In acknowledging a counterargument, you agree (concede) that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable, but then you deny (refute) the validity of all or part of the argument. This combination of concession and refutation actually strengthens your own argument; it appeals to logos by demonstrating that you understand a viewpoint other than your own, you’ve thought through other evidence, and you stand by your view.

15 Logos In an example by Alice Waters, a famous chef, food activist, and author. Writing in the Nation, she argues for acknowledgment of the full consequences of what she calls “our national diet” In an excerpt from an article by George Will, a columnist for the Washington Post and Newsweek, entitled “King Coal: Reigning in China,” examine how he appeals to logos in this article on “China’s ravenous appetite for coal.”

16 Interruption to Ch. 1 Chapter 3 – Logical FallaciesSome Fallacies are at work in The Crucible! But there are a TON…so we have a handout! (or two!)

17 Fallacies of RelevanceFallacies that result from using evidence that’s irrelevant to the claim fall under the general heading of red herrings. (The term derives from the dried fish that trainers used to distract dogs when teaching them to hunt foxes.) A red herring occurs when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion. If Politician X says, “We can debate these regulations until the cows come home, but what the American people want to know is, when are we going to end this partisan bickering?” she has effectively avoided providing evidence on the benefits or detriments of the regulations by trying to change the subject to that of partisanship. rel·e·vance ˈreləv(ə)ns/ noun the quality or state of being closely connected or appropriate. "this film has contemporary relevance"

18 Fallacies of RelevanceOne common type of red herring is an ad hominem fallacy. Ad hominem is Latin for “against the man”; the phrase refers to the diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. If you argue that a park in your community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute, then you are guilty of ad hominem — arguing against the person rather than addressing the issue. This fallacy is frequently misunderstood to mean that any instance of questioning someone’s character is ad hominem. Not so. It is absolutely valid to call a person’s character into question if it is relevant to the topic at hand. For example, if a court case hinges on the testimony of a single witness and that person happens to be a con artist, then his character is absolutely relevant in deciding whether he is a credible witness. rel·e·vance ˈreləv(ə)ns/ noun the quality or state of being closely connected or appropriate. "this film has contemporary relevance"

19 Fallacies of RelevanceAnalogy is the most vulnerable type of evidence because it is always susceptible to the charge that two things are not comparable, resulting in a faulty analogy. However, some analogies are more vulnerable than others, particularly those that focus on irrelevant or inconsequential similarities between two things. Whenever analogy is used, it’s important to gauge whether the dissimilarities outweigh the similarities. Advertisements sometimes draw faulty analogies to appeal to pathos; for example, an ad for a very expensive watch might picture a well-known athlete or a ballet dancer and draw an analogy between the precision and artistry of (1) the person and (2) the mechanism. When writers use analogy to add drama to a claim, it’s important to question whether the similarities really fit and illuminate the point or simply add emotional appeal. For instance, to argue that “we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we should do the same for people” asks the reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people. The analogy may at first glance appeal to emotions, but it is logically irrelevant rel·e·vance ˈreləv(ə)ns/ noun the quality or state of being closely connected or appropriate. "this film has contemporary relevance"

20 Fallacies of Accuracy ac·cu·ra·cy ˈakyərəsē/ nounUsing evidence that is either intentionally or unintentionally inaccurate will result in a fallacy. The most common example of inaccurate evidence resulting in a fallacy is one called the straw man. A straw man fallacy occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an opponent’s viewpoint. For example, consider the following scenario: Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little green men in outer space.” Politician Y is committing a straw man fallacy by inaccurately representing Politician X’s proposal, which is about space exploration and scientific experimentation, not “little green men.” Another fallacy that results from using inaccurate evidence is the either/or fallacy, also called a false dilemma. In this fallacy, the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices. For instance: Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt. This statement offers only two ways to view the issue, and both are extreme and inaccurate. ac·cu·ra·cy ˈakyərəsē/ noun the quality or state of being correct or precise. "we have confidence in the accuracy of the statistics" synonyms: correctness, precision, preciseness, exactness, exactitude

21 Fallacies of InsufficiencyPerhaps the most common of fallacies occurs when evidence is insufficient. We call this a hasty generalization, meaning that there is not enough evidence to upport a particular conclusion. For instance: “Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.” It could be that the story of the speaker’s aunt is true, but this single anecdote does not provide enough evidence to discredit the results of years of medical research. Another fallacy resulting from insufficient evidence is circular reasoning. Circular reasoning involves repeating the claim as a way to provide evidence, resulting in no evidence at all. For instance, a student who asserts, “You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student” is guilty of circular reasoning; that is, the “evidence” that she should get an A is that she is an A student. The so-called evidence is insufficient because it is a mere repetition of the claim. You can frequently spot circular reasoning in advertising. For instance: “Buy this shampoo because it’s the best shampoo!” or “Shop at this store because it’s a shopper’s paradise.” in·suf·fi·cien·cy ˌinsəˈfiSHənsē/ noun the condition of being insufficient. "insufficiency of adequate housing"

22 Pathos Pathos is an appeal to emotions, values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other. Although an argument that appeals exclusively to the emotions is by definition weak — it’s generally propagandistic in purpose and more polemical than persuasive — an effective speaker or writer understands the power of evoking an audience’s emotions by using such tools as figurative language, personal anecdotes, and vivid images.

23 Pathos With The Checkers Speech by Richard NixonLet’s look at a more direct example of pathos. As a vice-presidential candidate, Richard Nixon gave a speech in 1952 defending himself against allegations of inappropriate use of campaign funds. In it, he related this anecdote, which is the reason that the speech will forever be known as “the Checkers speech”

24 Pathos through Humor Another way to appeal to pathos is through humor.Since we like to hear things that we already believe are true, our first reaction to anything that challenges our beliefs is often negative: we think “that’s all wrong!” and get defensive or outright offended. Humor works rhetorically by wrapping a challenge to our beliefs in something that makes us feel good — a joke — and thus makes us more receptive to the new idea. This goes not just for new ideas, but for the people who are presenting those ideas. Whether it is gentle tongue-in-cheek teasing or bitter irony, humor may help a writer to make a point without, for instance, seeming to preach to the audience or take himself or herself too seriously. Political commentator Ruth Marcus employs gentle humor in the following essay from 2010 in which she addresses the speaker of the House of Representatives and objects to the members of Congress using electronic devices during hearings and other deliberations. Even the title, a play on words, signals the humorous tone: “Crackberry Congress.”

25 Pathos with The Order of the Day by General Dwight D. EisenhowerGeneral Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe, distributed the following Order of the Day to the military troops right before the 1944 D-Day invasion of Normandy. How does General Eisenhower appeal to pathos?

26 Combining Ethos, Logos, & PathosMost authors don’t rely on just a single type of appeal to persuade their audience; they combine these appeals to create an effective argument. And the appeals themselves are inextricably bound together: if you lay out your argument logically, that will help to build your ethos. It is only logical to listen to an expert on a subject, so having ethos can help build a foundation for an appeal to logos. It’s also possible to build your ethos based on pathos — for example, who better to speak about the pain of losing a loved one than someone who has gone through it? The best political satirists can say things that are both perfectly logical and completely hilarious, thus appealing to both logos and pathos at the same time. Let’s examine a letter that Toni Morrison, the only African American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, wrote to then-senator Barack Obama endorsing him as the Democratic candidate for president in The letter was published in the New York Times.

27 Determining Effective and Ineffective RhetoricNot every attempt at effective rhetoric hits its mark. A famous example of humorously ineffective rhetoric is the proposal of Mr. Collins to the high-spirited heroine Elizabeth Bennet in the novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. Mr. Collins, a foolish and sycophantic minister, stands to inherit the Bennet estate; thus, he assumes that any of the Bennet sisters, including Elizabeth, will be grateful for his offer of marriage. So he crafts his offer as a business proposal that is a series of reasons.

28 Analyzing Ethos, Logos, & Pathos If the Japanese Can’t Build a Safe Reactor, Who Can? By Anne Applebaum Let’s turn to an essay, an op-ed piece that appeared in the Washington Post in 2011 after Japan was hit by a massive earthquake and tsunami that severely damaged nuclear reactors. Columnist Anne Applebaum uses this devastating situation to argue against further use of nuclear power. As you read the article, analyze it rhetorically and ask yourself if she is likely to achieve her purpose or if her strategies miss the mark.

29 Culminating Activity By this point, you have analyzed what we mean by the rhetorical situation, and you have learned a number of key concepts and terms. It’s time to put all the ideas together to examine a series of texts on a single subject. You have three texts related to the 1969 Apollo 11 mission that landed the first humans on the moon. The first is a news article from the Times of London reporting the event; the next is a speech by William Safire that President Nixon would have given had the mission not been successful; the third is a commentary by novelist Ayn Rand; Examine the purpose of each text and how the interaction among speaker, audience, and subject affects the text. How does each text appeal to ethos, pathos, and logos? Finally, how effective is each text in achieving its purpose?

30 Rhetorical Terms ReviewAudience Concession Connotation Context Counterargument Ethos Logos Occasion Pathos Persona Polemic Propaganda Purpose Refutation Rhetoric Rhetorical Appeals Rhetorical Triangle SOAPS Speaker Subject Text