1 The Origins of Foreign PolicyLevels of Analysis Individual Group/Society Nation State Ideology System
2 The Human Dimension of Foreign Policy – The Individual level of Analysis1. RAM (Realism or Decision theory) 2. Impact of Idiosyncratic Factors a. Biological Explanations b. Motivational Factors c. Cognitive Map/Mental Framework/Operational Code d. Personality Types e. Misperception f. Cognitive Dissonance g. Imperfect information h. Mirror Imaging 3. Prospect Theory
3 Societal/Cultural Determinants of Foreign Policy – The Nation/State Level of Analysis1. National Character/Strategic Culture a. Decision makers are products of the societies in which they live. It therefore makes little difference who occupies positions of authority. b. What percent of society holds these views? c. “Swaddling” Hypothesis for Russia/ “City on the hill” for the U.S. d. Consensus v. individual decision-making. e. Short-term pragmatic legalistic approach. f. Elite opinion v. mass opinion in the U.S. g. Independent variable or bounded rationality in conduct of foreign policy.
4 Societal/Cultural Determinants of Foreign Policy – The Nation/State Level of Analysis2. Nationalism a. Both a positive and a negative. b. Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations” c. Societal Structure d. Stability e. National Endowments f. Conflict Behavior
5 Ideology – Dead or AliveFukuyama – “The end of History” Huntington – “Clash of Civilizations” The functions of Belief Systems for states Constraints on range of foreign policy options Provide continuity in FP Means to rationalize FP choices and sell to the public Used for propaganda and development of nationalism When Ideology fails as a cohesive force The Soviet Belief system All policy must be justified in terms of Marxism-Leninism Is it really just a myth to cover authoritarian values? Historical determinism/Economic determinism Effects of Marxist beliefs Just rooted in Russian History
6 Ideology – Dead or Alive (cont.)The American Belief System Isolationism Liberal interventionism – Monroe Doctrine 1823 Legal and moral arguments to justify interventions “City on the hill” – Is this ideology? Peace is the norm, war is an aberration – reactive state American troops sent overseas 125 times. Was the Cold War America’s fault? Chinese Belief System Is Communism still relevant? Mao was a nationalist and a Communist Leader in 3rd world not Communist world Confucian Values with emphasis on authority “Century of Humiliation”
7 Ideology – Dead or Alive (cont.)Indian Belief Systems Colonialism or Indian heritage? Hinduism/Buddhism Gandhi Non-alignment Iranian Belief Systems Islam v. Shah’s use of 2500 years of Persian heritage Shia world leadership Impacts of National Beliefs Important when established values are challenged Important when ideology is founding state principal and leaders use ideology in instrumental sense More important than economic variables
8 The Changing Environment of U.S. Foreign PolicyAxiom of American foreign policy was “politics ends at the water’s edge”. Assumption lasted until the end of WWII: Explicit- the government must present a united front to the world Implicit- FP actions had few domestic consequences Now US domestic decisions affect other countries - Car emissions standards, etc. and other countries domestic politics affect Americans - NAFTA With globalization FP & domestic politics have become unified process. FP no longer deals solely with governments of states, now includes groups within states (supranational actors). Distinction between foreign and domestic politics has disappeared.
9 International System Basis of the International System of Today is the Peace of Westphalia main concepts: Sovereignty- the supreme authority. First thought to reside in the monarchs, now is thought to reside within the government of states. State- refers to exclusive jurisdiction over a piece of territory. States legally possess sovereignty. State Sovereignty: Right of each state to maintain total and absolute jurisdiction over its sovereign territory and those who live within it. Internal effects: creates authority. The power to make and enforce decisions about relations among people, and between the people and the govt. i.e. a democracy has authority due to the system’s legitimacy. Other systems use coercion or tradition to enforce authority. External effects- A government cannot impose its rules on other governments, results in the absence of authority in the intl system: ANARCHY
10 The Product of Anarchy - RealismPower Politics Anarchy creates an international system based on power politics. Power- the ability to get someone to do something he or she would not otherwise do and states use their power to influence the behavior of other states. Foreign Policy All states have vital interests, which may conflict with other states’ interests. 1. FP is the property of the state alone 2. States can be compelled to forfeit vital interests by more powerful states 3. A vital interest is one that a state would go to war over FP is used to resolve disagreements over interests.
11 The Debate over Future American Policy- Where is American FP post-Cold War?Foreign Policy Today- Extensive government-to-government interactions with extensive involvement from the media and other federal agencies. 2 interactive dimensions: Content of policy and the policy process. As the content of policy changes due to a change in environment, the policy process must change to accommodate it. a. The Cold War- The US could not return to isolationism after WWII and had to deter the Soviets b. Now, free trade areas are being created, global environment issues requires all states cooperation. Policy Process Post-WW II - New organizations formed: a. Department of Defense - to integrate the defense establishment into the FP process. b. National Security Council - to become the penultimate decision-making body for FP. Congressional interest and activism increased in FP post Vietnam.
12 The American View on Foreign PolicyUS is a special state with a special destiny, therefore U.S. can us soft power: the attractiveness of the institutions and ideas that compose the American system Role model for the world – “the shining city on the hill” Isolationism- separation is good. Reinforced by geography Only the recent depletion of our own natural resources has resulted in dependence outside of the state Washington & Jefferson- avoid entangling alliances (economic ties are good) Flaw of U.S. Isolationism- Economic and political ties can’t be separated
13 The American View on Foreign PolicyA historicism- lack of shared history among “Americans” (immigrant culture). lack of a shared enmity for foreign countries Americans do not generally support national security measures American’s optimistic view of the U.S. & its place in the world due to a “successful history” Disdain for power politics American Idealism- America’s mission is to save the world from itself ; transformed power politics of war into questions of good and evil
14 Two Schools of Thought on the International Systema) Realism - Basis of International Relations in an anarchic, state-centric system is the exercise of power b) Liberalism/Idealism - Principle dynamic of International relations is the existence of peace periodically interrupted by costly, unnecessary, and unavoidable war. Post-WWI- idealism reigned. Support of the League of Nations, strengthen international law and organization The FP Debate - America’s Concerns a. Approach to FP (Levels of Involvement) - Internationalism vs. Neo-isolationism b. Standing in the World - Optimism vs. Declinism c. National Priorities - Foreign vs. Domestic d. Interests & Responsibilities – Expanded vs. Traditional e. Efficacy of Power - Necessary vs. Narrow
15 Conclusions: FP policy and process are continually changing due to changes in the environment/system (Ex. WWI FP vs. Post-Cold War FP) To understand current FP, we need to understand the context within which the present and future is shaped.
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17 Lessons 5 & 6: Context of US Foreign Policy – The Cold War1. Engagement of the Cold War 2. Height of the Cold War 3. Thawing the Cold War 4. Redefinition of the Cold War 5. Last Gasp of the Cold War 6. Gorbachev and the end of the Cold War 7. Dismantling the Cold War
18 Engagement of the Cold War 1945-1950Stalin, FDR & Truman Bi-Polarity Eastern Europe Iran, Turkey & Greece Containment/NSC 68 Berlin Korea
19 Height of the Cold War 1950-1962 Missed Opportunity?Red Scare/Army McCarthy Hearings Bomber Gap/Missile Gap Sputnik Austrian Peace Treaty Hungary/Suez Cuban Missile Crisis
20 Thawing the Cold War 1962-69 “The Best and the Brightest”The Berlin Wall Vietnam Prague Spring MAD Sino-Soviet Split
21 Redefinition of the Cold War 1969-77SALT Ford/Angola Ping-pong diplomacy Yom Kippur War Watergate Carter Doctrine
22 Last Gasp of the Cold War 1977-85Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan “Window of vulnerability” “The evil empire” Spend the Soviets into the Ground SALT II
23 Gorbachev and the end of the Cold War 1985-89Glasnost, Perestroika, Novayu Dumayu The Sinatra Doctrine SDI/INF/Zero Option Afghan Withdrawel
24 Dismantling the Cold War 89-91Polish Elections Hungary opens its border (Sep) The fall of the Berlin Wall (Nov) 2+4 Agreement Soviet Coup Attempt 91 European Security
25 A World of Tiers Second Tier (South) The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th WorldsNow -First Tier (North) Second Tier (South) Developed Partially Developed Developable Resource Rich
26 Lesson 7: The President in Foreign PolicyPresidential Power Constitutional basis Commander in Chief President is commander-in-chief, yet the Congress has the power to declare war. “The United States has declared war in only five conflicts.” Negotiating treaties Power shared between the president and the senate. Senate has denied 2 treaties: the Treaty of Versailles and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. Increasing use of executive order for international accords. Appointments Cabinet secretaries/ambassadors Senate has the ability to deny appointments, such denials are rare. Diplomacy “President shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers.” Recognition of foreign governments.
27 Presidential Power Advantages of the executive National constituencyThe president represents the entire nation “Bully pulpit” as only nationally elected official Winning support for ideas by swaying public opinion. Party leader commands Partisan loyalty. Full-time - In contrast to congressional session/recess cycle. Head of federal bureaucracy Helps ensure consistency in ideology among federal agencies. Information control The executive branch controls what intelligence is provided to the Congress.
28 Presidential Power Constraints on executive powerDevelopments overseas Decisions by other nations often cause US foreign policy to be reactive. Domestic politics Party control in the Congress Re-election posturing Personal limitations Presidents must take “cognitive shortcuts” to simplify decision-making. 'Twilight Zone' of presidential prerogative Foreign policy agenda Presidential stature influences which subjects get priority. Chain-of-command President will rely on some advisers over others. Which advisers and agencies gain presidential attention determines how foreign policy is conducted. Taking initiative Taking the lead on foreign policy issues. “Saber rattling” Troop deployment
29 Presidential Power Executive branch structureThe management style employed by the president influences what strategies are discussed. Role of the vice president Judicial interventions “the President is the sole organ of the nation in its external relations” War on terrorism Rasul et al. v. Bush and Hamdi v. Rumsfeld - Supreme Court ruled that detained “enemy combatants” held at Guantanamo Bay could appeal the reason for their detention. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld - Military tribunals against both federal and international law. Impact of international law Adherence to international law encourages cooperation. Extraterritoriality of embassies and consulates “Freedom of the seas” and maritime trade Conclusion - inherent conflict with US foreign policy decision-making in part due to Constitution’s vague descriptions of branch powers with regard to this matter
30 Lesson 8: Congress - Beyond the Waters EdgeConstitutional Congressional Powers: Declaration of war Raise and maintain armed forces Regulation of commerce Advice and consent to appointments and treaties Advantages of Congressional Involvement in Foreign Affairs: Promote open deliberation Promote compromise Citizens voices may be heard A curb presidential powers Disadvantages of Congressional Involvement in Foreign Affairs: Self-interested legislators focus on domestic issues, which are more closely related to their constituents needs Most concerned with being re-elected Unified vs. Divided government Since the Vietnam war divided government has been the most common Divided government increases gridlock Unified government encourages legislative activism. Characteristics of Congressional Sessions Longevity Polarization and Party Unity Public Discontent
31 Congress - Beyond the Waters EdgeTrends in Legislative-Executive Relations 2 factors of situational context: Nature of the issues/Timing of the decisions Congressional diplomacy- how involved the president is in the legislative process may determine the success of foreign policy legislation. Collaboration and Discord in the Cold War Oversight- in the 1970s and 80s congress passed many bills aimed at increasing the extent to which it could monitor the executives foreign policy decisions. The Case Zablocki Act- The War Powers Nelson-Bringham Jackson-Vanik Amendment Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980 Clinton versus the Republican Congress Deference in the War on Terrorism Constraints on Congressional Action Passing the Buck Structural Weakness Judicial Noninterference Constituent Service
32 Congress – Beyond the Waters EdgeLegislating Foreign Policy Dynamics of the Legislative Process President, interest groups, and think tanks often create foreign policy legislation but foreign policy entrepreneurs can be individuals in Congress Legislative process is intentionally difficult so as to protect the freedom of citizens from activism by the government Procedural innovations The Calculus of Voting Behavior (4 key determinants of voting behavior) Situational Factors Ideological Factors Electoral Factors Strategic Factors Foreign Policy by Committee Ongoing Struggles over War Powers
33 Congress – Beyond the Waters EdgePower of the Purse The power of the purse and is considered the most important power. The defense budget and the international affairs budget must be approved by Congress. Managing the Defense Budget the largest spending category in the federal budget controversy over the defense budget has four categories 1. guns-or-butter 2. legislative and executive disagreements 3. The iron triangle – Military Industrial Complex 4. Districts represented by influential congressmen are more likely to benefit from military project spending The Price of Diplomacy
34 Lesson 9: The Foreign Policy BureaucracyBureaucracies are a necessity in order for a large government to function Bureaucratic managers wield a lot of power in making policy decisions for three reasons Congressional Deference-Congress tends to leave agencies alone once they are created White house constraints-Presidents have so much to deal with they generally leave agencies alone, and agencies remain with the same structure as presidents come and go Organizational Expertise-Managers tend to know their responsibilities more than the elected officials that created their position Four complexes that the bureaucracy is separated into Diplomatic Complex Security Complex Intelligence Complex Economic Complex
35 The Foreign Policy BureaucracyThe Diplomatic Complex: The State Department: Advises presidents on foreign policy Gathers and disseminates information on global affairs Protects the interests of US citizens abroad Manages foreign travel to the US Investigates transnational problems (i.e environmental decay, and widespread poverty) Criticisms of the State Department: Elitism- Excessive Caution- Clientitis-
36 Foreign Policy BureaucracyThe Security Complex: The National Security Act of 1947 created the National Security Council (NSC) and the Department of Defense The National Security Council - 3 primary functions Agent of policy coordination Source of neutral policy guidance Forum for crisis management The Department of Defense Under the Secretary of Defense are the heads of the three branches of the military, as well as the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and unified and specified commanders The JCS is made of the heads of all the armed forces, and were strengthened by the Goldwater-Nichols Act in 1986 NATO The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Established after the 9-11 terrorist attacks 9-11 made Americans realize that they were vulnerable to attack at home Pres George W. Bush created the Office of Homeland Security by means of an executive order Both organizations were consolidated to the DHS in 2003, which also brought 22 other federal agencies under its roof The DHS also has very little oversight on its spending, which cause some serious criticism
37 Foreign Policy BureaucracyThe Intelligence Complex Today’s intelligence is collected less on other governments, more from extra governmental groups such as terrorist organizations Information Gap The information gathered takes three different forms: Human intelligence Signal intelligence Image intelligence Electronic intelligence Intelligence has a cycle with five steps Planning and direction Collection Processing Analysis Dissemination
38 Foreign Policy BureaucracyFeatures of the Intelligence Community Counterintelligence National Security Act of 1947 9-11 was a serious intelligence failure and led to the creation of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence to oversee the other 17 agencies There are intelligence agencies in each branch of the armed services, Pentagon manages its own Defense Intelligence Agency, and three support agencies: The National Security Agency (NSA) The National Reconnaissance Office The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency 5 problems plague the intelligence complex: Operational Failures- Strategic surprises- Internal security- Politicized intelligence- Domestic intelligence-
39 Foreign Policy BureaucracyThe Economic Complex Promoting national prosperity is the main goal, but this is an intermestic issue Congress big in economic policy Federalism is a factor Department of the Treasury Key Players in Economic Policy The National Economic Council- The Office of the United States Trade Representative- The Treasury and Commerce Departments The Fed International Financial Institutions The World Bank The IMF The WTO
40 American Public Opinion & Foreign PolicyPublic opinion is especially important in the democratic United States since we were built on the idea of “for the people” but its role has changed over time Political leaders must gauge citizen’s attitudes for policy decisions Manipulation of public opinion occurs However, there’s more leeway with foreign policy than with domestic issues since there is less direct impact on citizens Democracy and the Paradox of World Power: Tension between democratic governance and foreign policy Short-term issues take precedence over long-term decisions Americans’ influence are uneven Most Americans are “semi-sovereign” Because of powerful interest groups like corporations Does a substantive democracy exist? (citizens empowered daily) 1. Foreign Policy Elite: hold powerful positions in govt./interest groups, “opinion leaders” (1% of pop.) a. INTEREST + INFLUENCE 2. Attentive Public: bureaucrats/scholars/activists, knowledgeable but can’t participate (15%) a. INTEREST, NO INFLUENCE 3. Mass Public: not well-informed, apathetic (majority) a. NO INTEREST OR INFLUENCE b. Sometimes defer to view of elites in media with key issues like wars
41 American Public Opinion & Foreign PolicyRival Views of Political Leadership: 1. Delegate model a. Elected officials act how majority wants b. Abraham Lincoln’s “will of the constituents” c. Directly related to LIBERALISM theory of international relations (“positive”) 2. Trustee model a. Elected officials have flexibility/autonomy to act in best interest of citizens b. Citizens aren’t as informed c. Edmund Burke says a representative betrays you by listening to your opinion instead of what they think it best d. Directly related to REALISM theory of international relations (“pessimistic”) Mood Swings or Pragmatism?: Almond-Lippmann consensus - 3 assumptions about public opinion: 1. Volatile - Shifts a lot with new developments 2. Incoherent - Lacking consistency/structure 3. Irrelevant - Doesn’t matter to policy-making process · More recent research Not volatile Mass public is most nationalistic on economic issues than elite Both groups favor US participation in U.N. Realists favor militant internationalism (competitive) Liberals favor collaboration and resource pooling Majority of Americans don’t have “international trust Not incoherent When citizens don’t have all the info, they form opinions on foreign policy based on deeply-held principles/values Not irrelevant Elected leaders try VERY hard to gauge/manipulate opinion
42 American Public Opinion & Foreign PolicyAmerica’s Knowledge Gap: Despite American’s access to the policy process, citizens are extremely ill-informed Focus on local/state problems during times of peace Detachment from outside world Students and citizens both ignorant about world population/other cultures Misperception arises when citizens don’t know about an issue and misread cues from a leader Public Opinion since World War 1: The way the public reacts to overseas events/foreign policy helps determine success/failure of a President Consensus and Discord During the Cold War: After WWII: President Truman moves against isolationism IKE &JFK continue Truman’s military buildup, focus on anticommunism Lyndon Johnson has public support for early troops sent to Vietnam until Tet Offensive Under Richard Nixon, opposition grows Jimmy Carter agrees with national sentiment that Human Rights is a central pillar of US Foreign Policy Ronald Reagan promises to rid government of Vietnam syndrome George H. W. Bush inherits favorable international climate, broad public approval Ambivalence and Drift During the Clinton Years: New patterns in public opinion - No single foreign policy issue dominated Rallying Around the Flag After September 11: 2000 Presidential Election (W. Bush vs. Gore): domestic issues dominate· Fear of terrorism rises to top of concerns after 9/11 attacks President’s George W. Bush’s approval ratings rose sharply Strong public support for March 2003 Iraq invasion
43 American Public Opinion & Foreign PolicyAnti-American Backlash: Public support for George W. Bush’s foreign policies plummets Escalating violence in Iraq, public thinks war is not necessary Revived Legitimacy In the Obama Era: o His foreign policy aligned with public preferences in 4 areas: 1. Diplomacy- 2. Multilateral Cooperation- 3. International Law- 4. International Institutions- Group Identities and Foreign Policy Views: Citizens’ political viewpoint come from past experience, values, and exposure to current events o Personal/unique to individuals o Common attributes form group identities o Public opinion about US foreign policy reflects 3 main categories of group identity: Physical Identities: Gender, Race, and Generation: Strong foundation for group identities o Gender gap o Racial differences o Generational differences
44 American Public Opinion & Foreign PolicySocial Identities: Education, Wealth, and Religion: Social/political identities come from personal experience unlike physical identities Education/wealth have a clear impact on public opinion (closely related) High education/wealth are defining features of elite, also to attentive public Affluent Americans favor cooperative internationalism Mass public favor isolationism/militant internationalism Religious beliefs have different, but equally strong, influence “faith factor” or divine divide Evangelical Protestants in Bush administration were least effected by low approval ratings of war because of belief that the conflict was part of a divine plan Jewish/Muslim Americans favor Israel/Arab states Political Identities: Ideology and Political Party: “Basic attitudes” Ideological views formed early in life Highly stable over time Liberals-concern over human rights/global poverty/environmental decay Conservatives-strengthening US military power/restricting immigration/promoting US business overseas Basic attitudes have direct impact on party affiliation Conclusion: Public opinion plays an especially crucial role in democratic nations American citizens expect leaders to take policy preferences into account US foreign policy has shifted from general acceptance to skepticism after Vietnam Public opinion has polarized (shift from consensus to contention) However, US citizens largely remain ignorant of world history/current events
45 Impact of Mass Communication on Foreign PolicyFunctions of the News Media First Amendment: freedom of the press - Enables society to check government authority Americans are more dependent on news media on foreign policy issues News outlets fill 3 primary roles in U.S. foreign policy: Source of information and opinions Agenda setter Government watchdog- Scrutinize gov. actions and reveal wrongdoings Role of news media in U.S. foreign policy: influences both the public and gov. Tension between journalists & govt - reporters benefit from govt. failure Relationship b/n media & govt.= symbiotic (one based on mutual need) Patterns of Foreign News Coverage Change in journalism Journalists no longer messengers; are now advocates Explosion of new media Selective exposure - rigid beliefs, polarization of public opinion U.S. media rarely cover international news unless U.S. faces major crisis Intensifying market pressures imposed on U.S. news outlets Most Americans find only the most urgent news about events abroad worthy “Knowledge gap” reduced within small share of national population, but widened overall gap b/n rich & educated Americans
46 Impact of Mass Communication on Foreign PolicyEvolving Technologies and Media Coverage Technological innovations for mass communication in history: Vietnam War- first “living-room” war; turning point in news media’s coverage of U.S. foreign policy Globalized telecommunications were key in collapse of communist gov. CNN effect: rapidity with which globalized news coverage prompts gov. action Characteristics of World News Growing concentration of media outlets—media deregulation in U.S. 8 media conglomerates dominate in U.S. 6 common trends/ characteristics of U.S. foreign policy news coverage: From print to video- The rise of niche media- U.S.-centered- news managers Conflict orientation- Superficiality- parachute journalism Arbitrariness- Is it troubling that global news coverage shapes the agenda of U.S. foreign policy? Media-driven foreign policy makes it hard for diplomats/ policy makers to strategize ·
47 Impact of Mass Communication on Foreign PolicyGovernment Efforts to Control the Message Gov. works to portray themselves in positive way—spin control Seeks to advance its agenda and control public opinion by manipulating information—propaganda Keeping secrets: most common means by which U.S. govt. controls info Press leaks, unofficial leaks “Framing” U.S. Foreign Policy - News organizations “frame” foreign policy problems: structure and simplify problems so U.S. citizens understand in ways that favor govt. Public Diplomacy and Strategic Communications The Seduction of “Soft News”
48 Social Movements & Interest GroupsThis lecture will: Group Action and the Paradox of influence Discuss how interest groups are both vital to democracy and sometimes detrimental to coherent policy Discuss prolific social movements in the United States Discuss non-governmental organizations as interest groups in the United States Discuss economic interest groups in the United States
49 Social Movements & Interest GroupsU. S. System encourages social movements and interest groups by having: Fragmented governmental structures: allow many different access points to policy (legislative, executive, etc.) Robust social structures (state control of society highly limited) Numerous policy networks connect issues and NGOs
50 Social Movements & Interest GroupsSocial movements: broad-based collective actions undertaken by citizens and groups to solve perceived societal problems through the reform of domestic and foreign public policy- Success or failure of social movements depends on form of government Democracies with dynamic societies are best for social movements Some governmental structures have unique effects on the functioning of social movements (i.e. social movements in the U.S. often need to align with one or the other party to succeed) Examples: War protests Vietnam War protests succeeded in ending the war due to high numbers of troops deployed, high numbers of troops killed, and an unpopular draft Iraq War protests were discouraged by the decision to invade
51 Social Movements & Interest GroupsNGOs are divided into: Particularist NGOs Cosmopolitan NGOs Four weaknesses of NGOs Limited resources: must constantly solicit funding to survive Lack of formal contacts with governments, making government access difficult Competing claims between NGOs Democratic deficit created by a lack of elected representation and openness in decision-making Three strengths Ties to citizens at the local, regional, national, and transnational levels Shared values among members Expertise in relevant policy areas
52 Social Movements & Interest GroupsTypes of Foreign Policy NGOs Ethnic and religious groups Public interest groups Cosmopolitan focus Human Rights NGOs Environmental NGOs International Development NGOs Think Tanks and Private Foundations
53 National Security and Defense Policy5 elements create a sense of national security: 1. Military security- effectiveness of armed forces 2. Economic security- productive use of natural/human resources 3. Political security-stability/legitimacy of gov institutions 4. Societal security- vitality of civil society 5. Environmental security- degree to which natural resources are protected and human activity takes place on ecologically sustainable basis Hook CH 10 focuses on military security
54 National Security & Defense PolicyUS Security Elements largest presence/most Military power in the world (budget is $600 billion) Often uses military to achieve FP goals (eg. Recent operations in Iraq) but operations were reshaped by terrorist attacks in 2001 Asymmetric warfare: wars fought between adversaries of highly uneven material strength Spectrum of armed conflict: chance of each type of conflict occurring is inversely proportionate to its destructiveness Nuclear war vs. peacekeeping missions Points of vulnerability in US: Openness, availability of records, broadcast to public Fragmented govt. (Pentegon, bureaucracies)
55 National Security and Defense PolicyElements of grand strategy derived from variety of external and internal sources: External sources Strategic environment- provides context in which strategy must be applied (eg. Sovereignty, territorial integrity) Defining feature = global primacy (world power dominated by US has endured) Internal sources Geopolitical assets- nation’s available physical and human resources and their utility in FP (ie. size, location, natural resources) Strategic culture- shared normative beliefs, attitudes and policy preferences as they pertain to a country’s foreign relations (ie. exceptionalism, moralism) State-society relations- interaction of govt and private actors in matters of FP (ie. private interest groups, mass media) Structural arrangements- governing bodies and legal system within which policymaking takes place (ie. Constitution, powers of each branch of govt)
56 National Security and Defense PolicyIII. Justifying the Use of Force Wars of necessity: conflicts arising from direct and unambiguous challenges to nation’s security Peaceful coercion: without use of widespread violence, compel foreign leaders to reverse acts of aggression, respect human rights of citizens, or protect US citizens from harm Considerations of War Over Peace: So much military power—under what circumstances should it be used to protect nation’s interests? 1950s: Eisenhower’s massive retaliation 1960s and 70s: no national consensus, lots of public protests Reagan: Weinberger Doctrine- avoidance of “hot” wars 1990s: Powell insisted on exit strategy- plan to conclude fighting and remove US presence (part of Powell Doctrine) and mission creep- tendency of limited deployments to take on new tasks and open-ended commitments 2000s: Bush initially favors restrictive conditions for using military force (less peacekeeping, invasion of Iraq violated parts of Weinberger and Powell doctrines) Obama
57 National Security and Defense PolicyIV. The Nuclear Shadow Central task of US security policy is to manage nation’s nuclear arsenal 2012, 9 govts have materials and means to deliver nuclear weapons Nuclear arms race began with US and Russia post-WWII Limits placed by SALT and START treaties Bush- widened possible use of nuclear weapons Obama- reversed trend, destruction of nuclear stockpiles Deterrence Theory in Practice: Nuclear weapons are not meant to be used—only used as threat (nuclear deterrence) Used by both Cold War Superpowers (extended deterrence- nuclear retaliation against attacks on their territory and territory of allies) MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction Kennedy approved flexible response- condoned US involvement in “limited wars” which could be fought below nuclear threshold Nuclear peace will be threatened in 21st century by strategic environment The Missile Defense Controversy: US advances in strategic missile defense make balance of terror more uncertain Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty- kept both superpowers vulnerable to nuclear attack Reagan’s Star Wars Program- called for space-based interceptors that could destroy nuclear missiles midflight Bush suspended ABM Treaty—challenged by opponents
58 National Security and Defense PolicyV. Waging War on Terrorism Defining the term is difficult—“premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub national groups intended to influence an audience” Uncertain moral status is reflected in just-war doctrine- moral code of conduct in war generally accepted that they must be declared by proper authorities, not target civilians Elements of US Counterterrorism Military combat-military forces play lead role in counteroffensive Law enforcement- domestic law enforcement agencies at all levels support counterterrorism effort (FBI, CIA, etc.) Diplomacy- little value in resolving differences directly with terrorist groups; national governments may benefit by cooperating with each other Intelligence- “know thy enemy” Finance- weaken terrorists by seizing control of financial assets Foreign aid and arms sales- increased economic aid to developing countries to prevent terrorism as motivating force Homeland security- heightened sense of vulnerability post- Sept 11 attacks led to new vigilance in patrolling borders and protecting high value targets Counterinsurgency: suppression of military challenges to established governments Obstacles to US Victory