1 The Sociological PerspectiveChapter 1

2 What is Sociology? The study of how membership of social groups, from families to schools and workplaces, influences people’s behavior. Sociologists are interested in how facts: - are created - connect to one another to create “social reality” Theories explain how facts are connected

3 Origins of Sociology Enlightenment –Cultural Upheaval – culture – the way of life of a particular group Period of time when people like Sir Isaac Newton began to question the view of the world – based on religious faith, superstition, customs, and traditions. First time people began to challenge traditional beliefs through reason and science Beliefs – ideas that are accepted as true, whether or not they are supported by evidence French Revolution – monarchy was overthrown by republican forces Industrial Revolution – mid 1700’s – economic disruption and change through the building of factories and machines in Britain and France.

4 All this change caused Comte to question how social order was created and maintainedSocial order – the behaviorural patterns and regularities established by societies that make social action possible He came up with: Positivism – it is possible to study the social world in the same way that scientists have studied the natural world (Scientific Revolution) All human societies pass through 3 stages 1. theological – order is based on religious beliefs and controls 2. metaphysical – “transition” where religion is challenged by science 3. positive – science and reason have replaced religion as the basis of social order Comte - Social order is created and maintained through cooperation (consensus)

5 Karl Marx (1818-1883) Order is created and maintained through conflict4 time periods of social development: 1. primitive communism 2. ancient society – kings/peasants/slaves 3. feudal societies (pre-industrial) – lord/peasant 4. capitalist / industrial societies – owner/employer and non-owner/employee These relationships were always characterized by conflict because they were based on the domination of one group over another. Force / Persuasion characterize relationships People can be controlled by violence and threats of prison or death Religious teachings and predetermination of a place in the world Social Classes based on inequality – wealth / power / influence Occupy Wall Street – protests against social and economic inequality in countries around the globe https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkBMrFE9p0g Marx & inequality – linked to stratification – the ranking of different social classes in order of their power, wealth, and influence Those who control economic resources typically are powerful across all areas of society, from politics to religion to the media. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fSQgCy_iIcc

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7 Max Weber ( ) Concerned with social change and how societies modernized. Social Change – A major shift in a political, economic, or cultural order. (shift from feudalism to capitalism or pre-modern to modern society) Weberian Theory – how and why pre-industrial societies based on agricultural production, with powerful lords and powerless peasants, developed into industrial societies with various forms of political democracy Social Development follows a process of modernization: - industrialization, urbanization, rationalization (science and logic) - comes from charismatic leaders who were acting purposefully – Jesus, Mohammed – and influence others through the strength of their personality Modernization in Europe was fueled by the ideas and principles of the Protestant religion Unlike Marx who felt social change was driven by economic forces, Weber says that political struggles, ideas, beliefs, science, forms of government may all transform a society Agreed with Marx in understanding conflict to understand how societies are organized and operate. Believed social class was often a source of conflict but that economic relations were not the only source of conflict in society.

8 Emile Durkheim ( ) Followed Comte’s consensus tradition (cooperation) and tried to understand “what holds societies together?” Societies are understood through their relationships between institutions - school, work, religion, education - ie – understanding how are families related to the workplace. Societies exist because of “value consensus” - agreement about the things that people in a society think are important Traditional Societies – society in which behavior is based on customs, habits and traditions “mechanical solidarity” – kinship groups, clans, tribes – held together by who they are rather than what they do Modern Societies – “organic solidarity” – industrial societies where people are bound together by what they do. People are bound together by what they do, such as paid work Allows the formation of much larger groups than mechanical solidarity More complicated than mechanical solidarity Make people feel like they have things in common – pledge of allegiance, shared belief in democracy Behavior can be scientifically studied - suicide has social causes, not just biological or psychological causes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9W0GQvONKc

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10 Warm up: Activity pg 5 Working with your table-mate, discuss class conflict. Identify three ways in which class conflict might be expressed. Also suggest ways in which conflicts between social classes might be resolved. (10 minutes)

11 Sociology as Science Approach Sociology with a scientific approachA scientific methodology encompasses certain procedural and ethical rules that should be followed in order to “do science”. Sociology as Science Approach Sociology with a scientific approach Science is a way of producing a particular kind of knowledge – one that is factual and objective rather than based on opinion or faith Science is a methodology; has two main qualities: - reliable – results can be replicated which tests the accuracy - valid – measures what is claimed to be measured (it is possible to measure the extent of crime using govt crime statistics, but validity may be limited - 90% of crimes go unreported) CAN SOCIOLOGY BE A SCIENCE?

12 Procedural Rules How is scientific knowledge created?By following a set of procedures that govern how data can be collected and analyzed Hypothetico-deductive method – research design based on the development and systematic testing of hypotheses Hypothesis – research question (must be tested or answered by systematic collection, presentation and analysis of data). Conclusions drawn from scientific research have not been disproven or shown to be false in the course of testing them against the available evidence.

13 Scientific Ethics There must be rules that govern the general conditions that research must satisfy in order to both attain and maintain scientific status – Science has to be: 1. Universal – knowledge is evaluated using universally agreed criteria. Personal values play no part. Focus is “falsification” – trying to identify weaknesses in process. 2. Communal – scientific knowledge is public. Peer-review used in process, not trust. 3. Disinterested – main responsibility is the pursuit of knowledge. No personal gain in outcomes. (pharmaceutical trials?) Or you may have “researcher bias” where validity is questioned. 4. Skeptical – continually evaluate knowledge because this questioning process contributes to the development of human understanding. How sociologists produce scientific knowledge can be done in two different perspectives: positivism and interpretivism

14 Positivism Positivism - It is possible and desirable to study the social world in the same way as the natural scientists. Positivism should have “value freedom” (no bias in the process) Positivism (scientific knowledge) is based on: – Factual, Objective, evidence-based, testable Non-scientific knowledge is based on: - opinion, guesswork, untested assumptions, faith

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16 Interpretivism Interpretivism (anti-positivism) – different people in different situations understand the social world in different ways. Positivism – “from without” Interpretivism – “from within” “to truly understand what it is like to be homeless, one should become homeless” Method (does not go from hypothesis to conclusion) 1. Planning 2. Data Collection / Data Analysis 3. Evaluation Qualitative Research – experiences and feelings of respondents – provides insight into the problem

17 Post-Modernism Not a scientific methodPost-Modernism – focus is on understanding how people construct personal narratives, through which they make sense of the world. Metanarratives – the “big stories” a society constructs to explain something about the nature of the world. “objectivity” – freedom from personal or institutional bias “respondent” – a person who is the subject of research Knowledge about the social world is actively created by people going about their daily lives; the world cannot exist independently of their activities Doing research: Positivism – asking people questions Interpretivism – participating in the behavior being researched Sociological research is not about getting at the truth - -- presenting different versions of the truth

18 The Uses of Sociological KnowledgeClassic Sociology, knowledge involved the development of grand theories that sought to explain ideas such as social order and change: Marx – theories about capitalism, economic and social exploitation and inequality Weber – theories of modernization Durkheim – the social forces that produced and inhibited change More recently, the focus has moved onto a range of social issues Feminism Feminism – a broad range of approaches dealing with male-female relationships from the perspective of the female (equal pay, sexual discrimination) Gender – the social characteristics different societies assign to individuals based on an understanding of their biological or social differences Biological sex refers to ideas like male and female Gender refers to ideas about masculinity and femininity. Poverty Social and environmental costs of development

19 Social Policy The uses of sociological knowledge have evolved to encompass things such as contributing to and informing public debates – making people aware of social issues and highlighting different perspectives Social Policy – ideas or actions pursued by governments to meet a particular social objective. Can you think of 3 examples? Trying to influence social policy, however, can have intended and unintended consequences – may lead to feelings of exclusion etc.

20 Sociological and Social ProblemsSocial Problem – public outcry to fix something Crime rates, poverty, unemployment Carter (2001) – behavior is only a problem with it is defined as such “according to the beliefs and values of some influential or dominant group in society” Therefore, a social problem is a behavior of which powerful social groups disapprove A social problem by one group may not be seen as such by another Sociological Problems The idea that societies have to solve certain fundamental problems – food, shelter, socialization if they are going to survive Issues of the nature of social order, control, and change are sociological problems not social issues. Although some believe they can be one in the same In general – sociological problems are considered in light of how and why behavior comes to be defined as social problem in the first place.

21 Examples Disability Disabled people face social problemsLack of facilities, discrimination Frequently labeled as a social problem in themselves (media) Sociological problem could be why the discrimination occurs and how disability is constructed as a social problem

22 Welfare

23 Why We Need Socialized Healthcare

24 Why We Don’t Need Socialized Healthcarehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPq6_7AFsp4

25 Overview: Social Problem / Sociological ProblemSocial Problems – crime, poverty, unemployment - only considered a problem when the dominant group in society deems so Sociological Problems - fundamental problems – food, shelter, socialization - the nature of social order - focus – how and why behavior comes about

26 Social Control Social control – rewards and punishments that societies use to maintain order Can you list 3 examples of social controls? List positives and negatives of each.

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28 Cross-Cultural / Intra-Cultural DiversityCultural Universals – behaviors that are common to all societies Age Family Language Status Symbols Beliefs practices Cross-Cultural Diversity – Between different societies - personal space Shaking hands/bowing Holding hands/ same sex (Saudi Arabia vs. US)

29 Intra-Cultural Diversity (found in modern industrial societies) - class – working, middle, lower - age – 5,18,21 – (child, teen, adult, elder) - gender – male/female – dress, work, responsibilities - ethnicity – American has many meanings - Modern Industrial Society – type of society characterized by particular forms of political, economic (mass production), and cultural (science and reason) beliefs

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31 religion – monotheism, paganism, polytheism – relevance in lifeExists in three main levels: 1. differences between religions 2. differences within religions – Islam – Sunni, Shia, Sufi 3. differences of belief, practice, and organization (Christianity) Global Culture Globalization – various processes that occur on a worldwide basis (economic, political, and cultural) Globalized culture Rapid global movement of cultural ideas, styles, and products that can me picked up, discarded and adapted to fit the needs of different cultural groups 2 forms : eventually lead to cultural bonding Globalized culture – how local or natural cultural ideas can spread – information technology is the driving force Process of convergence – cultures are becoming more alike Sharing the same language Doing the same things Consuming similar products

32 Functions Manifest Functions – intended consequences of an actionLatent Functions – unintended functions of the same action (think of government) Education

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34 Functionalist Theory vFunctionalist Theory v. Marxist Theory Differing theories of how order and control are created and maintained In common: Structuralist theories – argue that how societies are organized at the level of families, governments and economics, determines how individuals view their world and behave within it. Functionalist Theory – society functions mainly because of consensus - focus on institutions, government Marxist Theory – based on Marx’s ideas – class conflict Structuralist – Focus on analyzing society through institutional relationships Structural Determinism –families -governments -economies determine how we view the world and behave

35 Macrosociology / DeterminismMacrosociology – Large scale approach focused on social structure and institutions Determinism – human behavior is shaped by forces beyond our immediate control (social structure or society) - things we do, by class, age, gender?

36 Social Sub-Systems Systems solve problemsEconomic - physical survival (relationships to get what you need) Political – governing, maintaining order, creating rules Family – socialization, function as adult members of society Cultural – social integration, common values and norms - school, churches, media

37 Conflict Conflict Structuralism – societies are generally considered stable because powerful groups impose order on less powerful groups. Conflict w. feminism – struggle between men and women Economic Determinism – economic relationships - lord/serf, employer/employee - work is especially important to Marx b/c it provides the resources for us to survive Workplace is a key area of conflict because of its organizational structure Means of economic production are owned by one class Majority own little or nothing and are forced to sell their ability to work

38 Marxism + Conflict Relations of Production – social relationships people must enter in order to survive. Capitalism – hierarchy (within companies) - to control those lesser down the hierarchy Workplace as an area of conflict - the majority have little of nothing and are forced to sell their labor power (ability to work) Marx argues that the economically powerful are also politically powerful Private ownership allows higher classes to control the media + influence Media, Education, Religion support the status quo to keep lesser people in line.

39 Feminism Many types of feminism, but they all share the idea of patriarchy (men are more important than women). Liberal Feminism – promotes gender equality Marxist Feminism – challenging capitalism to promote gender equality, and free women from oppression. Radical Feminism – sees female oppression in terms of patriarchal relationship. - public – women paid less, less career mobility - private – women doing most of unpaid work at home

40 Approaches and Change Action Approach – people create and re-create society on a daily basis through their routines. Social Change - Marxism – conflict and clash - Feminism – anti-discriminatory laws in US - Marxist Feminism – Men are class enemies created by economic standards set forth in society - Radical Feminism – Men must be overthrown and matriarchy established (goes further than Marxist)