1 The Stalemated Seventies, 1968-1980Chapter 39

2 Nixon and His Staff Many Americans looked past Nixon’s quirks because of his experience and service as Vice President under Eisenhower Said to be willing to do or say anything to defeat his enemies Avoided cabinet members and looked to White House staff as advisers H.R. Haldeman became White House Chief of Staff John Ehrlichman served as Nixon’s personal lawyer and rose to the post of chief domestic advisor These two became known as the “Berlin Wall” because anyone who wanted to get to Nixon had to go through them first John Mitchell was another close advisor who would be appointed Attorney General

3 Domestic Policy Economy shaky because of VietnamNixon went against Republican tradition and considered deficit spending as a way to stimulate the economy Placed a 90-day freeze on wages, prices, and rent Americans depended on cheap imported oil for about 1/3 of energy needs Nixon’s oil price controls led oil companies to reduce production so that demand could not be met OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) imposed an embargo on US after we chose to support Israel in a war against Egypt and Syria Prices of oil quadrupled and inflation worsened A loaf of bread that cost 28 cents earlier in the 1970s now cost 89 cents Americans had paid 25 cents a gallon for gas and now paid 65 cents Consumers cut back on spending and the result was recession

4 The “Southern Strategy” and the Supreme CourtNixon believed he had little to gain by supporting advances in civil rights and desegregation slowed Wanted to win votes from the South and tried to encourage Congress not to extend provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (which would have expired in 1970) Went on television to tell America he was asking Congress to stop busing as a way to integrate schools It did not halt busing, but his opposition did limit it Four new justices named to the Supreme Court during Nixon’s presidency, allowing him to reshape the Court Appointed Warren Burger (moderate) and attempted to appoint two nominees from the South who showed racial bias

5 Relaxing Tensions Kissinger had no previous ties to Nixon, but would be appointed national security advisor and then Secretary of State Nixon and Kissinger’s greatest accomplishment was bringing about détente, relaxation of tensions, between the US, China, and the USSR Bypassing Congress and many of his advisors, Nixon and Kissinger reversed the direction of postwar American foreign policy

6 A New Approach to China Nixon loosened up relations with China byRecognizing it by its title “the People’s Republic of China” Lifting restrictions on travel to China Sending an American table-tennis team to China (“ping-pong diplomacy”) Ending a 21 year embargo on trade with China Personally visiting China He realized he could use China as a bargaining chip with the USSR since the Soviets wouldn’t want the US to get too close to China

7 Limiting Nuclear Arms Nixon visited the USSR after visiting China and received a warm welcome Agreed to work together to explore space, eased trade limits, and completed negotiations on a weapons pact Worried about the growing stockpiles of increasingly destructive weapons that both the US and the USSR had Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) began in 1969 and eventually produced a treaty that would limit offensive nuclear weapons SALT I (the first treaty) 5 year agreement that froze the number of ICBMs and SLBMs at 1972 levels and restricted development and deployment of ABMs SALT I approved, but Secretary of Defense insisted on improving conventional weapons and building better bombers and submarines Both countries began to develop a new technology that would put multiple nuclear warheads on a single missile, increasing destructive power

8 Roots of the Youth MovementConcern about the future because of the events of WWII and the Cold War led many people to become more active in social causes Civil Rights Movement Peace Corps By % of the population was 34 years old or younger (compared to 48.9% in 2000) Rapid increase in enrollment in colleges People could afford to send their kids to college Colleges were where protest movements became the biggest

9 Hippie Culture Originally, hippie culture was a rebellion against Western civilization, rationality, order, and the traditional values of the middle class Eventually, many forgot the roots of the movement and began to define it superficially by its long hair, cowboy boots, long dresses, shabby jeans, and the use of drugs Many hippies hoped to drop out of society by leaving home and living with other youths at communes in which they would share everything and work together Some communes were in rural areas, others were in parks, or small city apartments San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury District became one of the most popular hippie destinations

10 Early Gay Rights MovementThe Civil Rights movement also inspired the Gay Rights Movement, which shared the same areas of towns inhabited by many of the hippies of the 1960s Mainstream society was far from accepting of both groups, giving a common ground In several cases, just as with the Civil Rights Movement, there were riots Harvey Milk, who represented a district of San Francisco including Haight Ashbury, was the first openly gay politician to be elected to office in CA He was instrumental in passing gay rights legislation for the city Milk was assassinated, along with the mayor of San Francisco, by a political rival Marked a turning point in the movement

11 New Religious MovementsMany members of the counterculture embraced spirituality in a rejection of materialism They believed in various religions from astrology and magic to Eastern religions and new forms of Christianity Many of the religious groups centered around authoritarian leaders who dominated others and controlled their lives, sometimes to the point of arranging marriages Unification Church members were known as “Moonies” after their Korean-born founder who claimed to have had a vision in which Jesus told him that he was the next messiah and was charged with restoring the Kingdom of God on Earth Hare Krishnas came from an Indian Hindu sect that worshiped the god Krishna

12 The New Age Movement Some people believed that people were responsible for everything from self-healing to creating the world They believed that spiritual enlightenment could be found in common practices, not just going to church Many believed in reincarnation, that people could be reborn many times until reaching perfection Copyrighted to Himalayan Academy Publications, Kapaa, Kauai, Hawaii

13 Transcendental MeditationSuggested daily meditation and the silent repetition of spiritual mantras as a way of achieving peak intelligence, harmony, and health Advocates believed that if everyone practiced this type of meditation the world would be at peace Followers who made the movement popular included the Beatles

14 Changing Families The women’s movement changed how women viewed their roles as wives and mothers By 1970, 60% of women between 16 and 24 had started working Smaller families became the norm because of women working outside the home The birthrate hit an all-time low in 1976 and parents and their children began spending less time together A greater number of families split as the divorce rate doubled from 5 of every 500 marriages to 10 in every 500

15 Television in the 1970s The Mary Tyler Moore Show was revolutionary, showing an unmarried woman with a meaningful career All in the Family took risks by confronting social issues and featuring the blue-collar and bigoted Archie Bunker who called his wife a “Dingbat” and his son-in-law “Meathead” as well as mocking his feminist daughter and various ethnic groups It didn’t preach to its audience and allowed viewers to examine their own feelings about tough issues

16 Television in the 1970s (cont.)The Jeffersons became a spinoff from All in the Family and had similar humor It portrayed African Americans in a new light: as successful and respected Maude was another All in the Family spinoff and featured Archie’s feminist cousin who remarried after a third divorce and drew controversy when Maude decided to have an abortion Maude gave way to Good Times about an African American family struggling to raise three children in the projects of Chicago

17 Music of the 1970s became more reflective and less politicalDisco music became popular with its loud, persistent beat Groups like the Eagles, Barry Manilow, Chicago, and ABBA were all the rage

18 Fads and Fashion Personalized messages on T-shirts and mood rings were popular Fitness was another trend as many Americans turned to exercise to improve the way they felt and looked Aerobics was invented as a way to exercise without getting bored

19 César Chávez and the UFWCésar Chávez and Dolores Huerta organized two groups that fought for farmworkers and the groups cooperated in a strike against California growers to demand union recognition, increased wages, and better benefits When employers resisted, Chávez enlisted college students, churches, and civil rights groups to organize a national boycott of table grapes An estimated 17 million citizens stopped buying them and profits tumbled Chávez and Huerta merged their two organizations into the United Farm Workers union The strike ended 5 years later when the grape growers finally agreed to a contract to raise wages and improve working conditions

20 Growing Political ActivismHispanic Americans became more politically active during the 1960s and 1970s Hispanic political parties, like La Raza Unida, popped up around the country Growing numbers of Hispanic youths became involved in civil rights, some leading walk-outs of their schools in protest of racism Bilingualism became a big issue, as many felt that they should learn in their home language at the same time as learning English Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act in 1968 to support this idea, but many states have moved away from bilingualism in favor or total immersion

21 A Protest Movement EmergesMany Native Americans wanted greater independence from mainstream society Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act in 1968, which guaranteed reservation residents the protections of the Bill of Rights, but recognized the legitimacy of local reservation law Some Native Americans saw the reforms as too modest and formed their own more militant groups, like the American Indian Movement (AIM) In 1969 AIM made a protest by occupying the abandoned federal prison on Alcatraz Island for 19 months, claiming ownership “by right of discovery” A more violent protest happened at Wounded Knee, the site where federal troops had killed hundreds of Sioux in 1890 This “battle” ended in the death of two Native Americans and several injuries on both the side of the Native Americans and the FBI

22 Native Americans Make Notable GainsNative Americans did achieve increased funds for education, restored property rights, the right to impose taxes on businesses on their reservations and to perform other sovereign functions Many reservations have dramatically improved their economic conditions by actively developing businesses Gambling casinos have become successful

23 Women: Education and EmploymentAn increasing number of women went to college after WWII By % of BA degrees were awarded to women, up from 25% in 1950 Many employers were reluctant to train women because they were expected to leave their jobs once they had families Women who did work often found themselves underemployed and earning lower salaries than their male counterparts 1973: On average, women were paid 57 cents for each dollar a man earned

24 Impact of the Civil Rights MovementCivil Rights Movement provided a model for action Women working within the Civil Rights movement were often expected to make coffee and do clerical work while men made policy decisions Civil Rights Act of 1964 originally prohibited discrimination based on race, religion, or national origin Some opponents of civil rights added an amendment that outlawed discrimination on the basis of sex to make the entire bill look ridiculous, but it passed with the amendment Still, the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) didn’t take women’s claims seriously

25 Women’s Groups OrganizeBetty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique, about dissatisfied housewives, influenced the movement Women met in kitchens and living rooms across the country in consciousness-raising groups In 1966 a group of 28 professional women, including Betty Friedan, established the National Organization for Women (NOW) to press the EEOC to take women’s issues more seriously NOW sought fair pay and equal job opportunities For some, NOW seemed too extreme, others thought it not extreme enough because it focused mostly on middle-class white women

26 A Shift in Attitudes Women began to read publications (like Ms. – a magazine with viewpoints decidedly different from its Good Housekeeping and Ladies’ Home Journal counterparts) that would provide them with information about the movement In 1972 Congress passed a prohibition against sex discrimination as part of the Higher Education Act Women were now entering fields like law and admitted to military academies for officer training National Women’s Political Caucus was formed in 1971 to encourage participation in politics

27 Roe v. Wade Abortion was an issue that had the potential to divide the women’s movement NOW and other groups worked to reform the laws governing a woman’s right to choose an abortion Many states outlawed or severely restricted access to abortion Women who could afford to travel to another state or country could usually find legal medical services, but poorer women often turned to abortion methods that were not only illegal but unsafe 1973 the Supreme Court legalized abortion in the Roe v. Wade decision, based on the constitutional right to personal privacy The ruling struck down state regulation of abortion in the first three months of pregnancy, but still allowed states to restrict abortions during the later stages of pregnancy The case is still highly controversial

28 The Equal Rights AmendmentMany women campaigned for a Constitutional amendment that would make discrimination based on a person’s sex illegal Congress approved the passage of the amendment in 1972 To become law, it had to be ratified by 38 states 30 ratified it quickly, followed by a few others By states had ratified the amendment, but opposition forces were gaining strength and finally the deadline for ratification (1982) passed and the amendment died Women like Phyllis Schlafly argued that the amendment would cause the establishment of co-ed bathrooms and the end of alimony, part of what caused the bill to die

29 Opposition to the Women’s MovementMany men were hostile to the women’s movement, often calling it “women’s liberation” or “women’s lib” Not all women were sympathetic to the goals of the movement, some wanted to stay home and raise their children and were happy with traditional roles These women felt the movement undervalued their roles as wives and mothers Some African American women felt that combating racial discrimination was more important than battling sex discrimination

30 The Roots of Watergate After numerous political defeats Nixon had finally become president, but along the way he became defensive, secretive, and often resentful of critics He became president at a difficult time Nixon was so consumed with his opponents that he created an “enemies list” filled with people who were a threat to his presidency In order to gain an edge in the campaign, Nixon’s team would spy on opposition rallies and spread rumors and false reports

31 The Break In In the early hours of June 17, five Nixon supporters broke into the Democratic Party’s headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. They intended to obtain any sensitive campaign information and place wiretaps on telephones A security guard making his rounds spotted a piece of tape holding a door lock and ripped it off When he passed the door later he noticed the tape had been replaced He called the police who arrived and arrested the 5 men

32 The Cover-Up Begins The media discovered that one of the burglars, James McCord, was not only an ex- CIA official but also a member of the Committee for the Re-election of the President (CREEP) Reports surfaced that the burglars had been paid for their work from a secret CREEP fund controlled by the White House Administration officials destroyed incriminating documents and provided false testimony to investigators and the president stepped in

33 Nixon’s Personal ConnectionThough Nixon may not have ordered the break-in, he did order a cover-up With Nixon’s consent, administration officials asked the CIA to intervene and stop the FBI from investigating the source of the money paid to the burglars They claimed that such an investigation would threaten national security Nixon told the public “The White House has had no involvement whatever in this particular incident.” They believed him and he was re-elected by one of the largest margins in history

34 The Cover-Up Unravels In 1973 the Watergate burglars went on trial and buckled under pressure, agreeing to cooperate with a grand jury investigation Allegations were leveled against Nixon himself John Dean, a presidential advisor, testified before a Senate committee that former Attorney General John Mitchell had ordered the Watergate break-in and the Nixon had played an active role in the cover-up On July 16, a White House aide testified that Nixon had ordered a taping system installed in the White House to record all conversations to help him write his memoirs after leaving office

35 The Case of the Tapes Investigators wanted access to the tapes, but Nixon refused He claimed executive privilege, the principle that White House conversations should remain confidential to protect national security Archibald Cox ordered Nixon to hand over the tapes and Nixon ordered the Attorney General and then the Deputy Attorney General to fire Cox, but both men refused Eventually, Cox was fired by Solicitor General Robert Bork, but this damaged Nixon’s reputation with the public

36 Things Get Ugly Meanwhile, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign because it was discovered that he had taken bribes from state contractors while he was governor of Maryland and that he had continued to take bribes while serving in Washington Gerald Ford, Republican leader of the House of Representatives, became the new vice president

37 Impeachment Nixon appointed a new prosecutor, but he would be just as determined as Archibald Cox to obtain the president’s tapes Nixon released edited transcripts of the tapes in April 1974, claiming they proved his innocence, but investigators disagreed and went to court to force Nixon to turn over the tapes The Supreme Court ruled that the president had to turn over the tapes, not just transcripts

38 The Case for ImpeachmentThe House Judiciary Committee voted to impeach Nixon on the grounds that He had obstructed justice in the Watergate cover-up He had misused federal agencies to violate the rights of citizens He had defied the authority of Congress by refusing to deliver tapes and other materials that the committee had requested The next step was for the House to vote whether or not to impeach Nixon One of the unedited tapes revealed that 6 days after the Watergate burglary, Nixon had ordered the CIA to stop the FBI’s investigation of the break-in and the public was convinced On August 9, 1974 Nixon resigned his office in disgrace Gerald Ford became the 38th president

39 The Impact of WatergateThe Watergate crisis prompted a series of laws to limit the power of the president The Federal Campaign Act Amendments limited campaign contributions and established an independent agency to administer stricter election laws The Ethics in Government Act required financial disclosure by high government officials in all three branches of government Americans would go on to develop a deep distrust of their public officials

40 Ford and the Pardon Ford was one of the most popular politicians in Washington when he was appointed Vice President He was a college football star at the University of Michigan and served in the navy during WWII Ford lost popular support when, barely a month after Nixon resigned, Ford pardoned Nixon for “all offenses” he might have committed This caused outrage because Nixon walked away from Watergate without penalty while many of his loyalists were facing prison time

41 Economic Problems Nixon had been too preoccupied with Watergate to deal with the economy Inflation and unemployment rose while the economy remained stagnant, aka “stagflation” Ford’s approach was to try to restore public confidence by creating the WIN campaign (Whip Inflation Now) Asked Americans to wear “WIN” buttons, to save money, conserve fuel, and plant vegetable gardens This depended on voluntary actions but had no real incentives and failed Ford vetoed bills to create a consumer protection agency, fund public education, housing, and healthcare and Congress created the highest percentage of veto overrides since the 1850s

42 Carter’s Presidency Ford, who had previously said he would not be a candidate for President, changed his mind and ran against Jimmy Carter Carter was a former peanut farmer who was the governor of Georgia before becoming president Carter eliminated much of the ceremonial details of White House life like trumpets to announce his entrance at official receptions, but not everyone liked this He appointed many more women and minorities to his staff Carter’s Washington outsider role helped him in the election, but when it came time to work with Congress on important legislation he didn’t know how

43 He created the Department of Energy to coordinate federal programs promoting conservation and researching new energy sources because of our dependence on foreign oil National Energy Act was passed Taxed sales of gas-guzzlers Converted new utilities to fuels other than oil and natural gas Deregulated prices for domestic oil and natural gas Provided tax credits or loans to homeowners for using solar energy and improving home insulation Funded research for alternative energy sources such as solar energy Nuclear energy seemed promising, but people doubted its safety and cost March 1979 the nuclear plant at Three Mile Island (near Harrisburg, PA) experienced a partial meltdown of the reactor core and radiation was released 140,000 people fled their homes Investigation revealed operator errors that had made the initial problem worse Energy

44 Carter’s Domestic PoliciesFord’s economic issues continued into Carter’s administration Carter wanted to remove government controls of several industries (like oil and natural gas) Granted amnesty to those who had evaded the draft during the Vietnam War (reactions were mixed)

45 Camp David Accords The President of Egypt and the Prime Minister of Israel began negotiations for peace with each other, but had trouble reaching an agreement Carter invited the two men to Camp David, the presidential retreat in MD, and helped them to agree on a framework for peace Israel would withdraw from the Sinai peninsula and Egypt would become the first Arab country to recognize Israel’s existence as a nation

46 Soviet-American RelationsDétente was at a high point when Carter took office, but his stance on human rights angered Soviet leaders A second round of SALT talks took place, but before the Senate could ratify SALT II the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to bolster a Soviet-supported government there Carter called Brezhnev and told him this was a clear threat to the peace and said unless he stopped it would jeopardize our relationship Carter halted American grain shipments to the Soviet Union and ordered a boycott of the Olympic Games in Moscow 60 other nations joined in the boycott Détente was effectively over

47 The Iran Hostage CrisisWe had supported the shah (king) of Iran for a long time because he was pro-Western, had taken steps to modernize Iran, and was a reliable source of oil We overlooked the corruption and harsh repression of the government January 1979 revolution broke out led by Muslim fundamentalists who wanted to bring back traditional ways The shah fled the country and was replaced by Ayatollah Khomeini, an elderly Islamic leader who had been in exile He was aggressively anti-Western and planned to make Iran a strict Islamic state Carter let the shah enter the US for medical treatment and many Iranians were outraged Shortly after this, angry followers of Khomeini seized the American embassy in Tehran and took 52 Americans hostage for 444 days They were blindfolded and moved from place to place, tied up and beaten, and even faced mock executions intended to terrorize them Carter broke diplomatic relations with Iran, froze Iranian assets in the US, but Khomeini held out for the return of the shah for trial In 1980 Carter ordered a risky commando recue mission that ended in disaster when helicopters broke down in the desert and two aircraft collided in the retreat killing 8 American soldiers The standoff continued even after the shah died