1 Third World Conference of WASWAC “New Challenges of SWC in the Changing World” Belgrade, Serbia 22-26 August 2016 Soil and Water Conservation Implications on Soil Security and the Decline of Civilizations José Luis Rubio Councillor and President Int. Development Committee of WASWAC Ex President European Society for Soil Conservation-ESSC Desertification Research Centre- CIDE-CSIC, Valencia, Spain Crucified Land, A. Hague, 1939

2 A main idea: The mismanagement or abandon of soil and water conservation systems as a crucial factor triggering soil security consequences including the decline or even the collapse of civilizations What can we learn from the past ? Tight summary of initial results of an international (CIDE-Spain) project on the interactions of soil degradation and the decline of civilizations Early bench terraces bronze age Loma de Betxi, Valencia, De Pedro,1998

3 Widening, Deepening and Sectorialization of Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities & Risks Brauch, 2009 Buzan, 1998 Soil Security Concept The five dimension of SS: Capability (functionality), Condition (soil health), Capital (monetary, ecosystem services), Connectivity (social dimension of soil) and Codification (policy and regulations) A. McBratney and al., 2014

4 Soil Security Concept Soil security that can be analysed from the perspective of state, human, and environmental security refers to a –the depletion of the soil capacity to provide foods and ecological functions that puts in extreme cases the survival of affected people at risk. Soil security is threatened by –the severe degradation of soils and related fertility and biodiversity –the loss of soil capacity to regulate & store water –the climate impacts and changes (including drought) and human mismanagement –All resulting in bad harvests and crop yield declines. That has triggered severe and extended periods of famine affecting several billion people and causing the death of millions of persons. Soil security is achieved when efforts succeed –to conserve soil fertility: contain land degradation and applying adequate soil conservation management –when the consequences of soil degradation are reduced by improving livelihood and human well-being of the people. UNCCD, 2009 Soil security is the assurance to access to basic soil resources that can provide food, and ecosystem services to meet essential human needs for healthy living (Rubio, 2014)

5 Soil Security Implications Soil security affects esential human needs Acces to primary resources for subsitence Acces to land, land tenure, technical knowledge and resources Sufficient quantity and quality of food to all people to all times Adequate nutritious diet for a healthy life The lack of the previous implies: Poverty, hunger, famines, social and political instability Conflicts, violence and wars for scarce or degraded arable land Forced migrations and displacement Decline or collapse of social and political structures

6 Some historical antecedents of the collapse of ancient societies and civilizations Indus Valley Harapa Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent Eastern Island Hittite Empire, Anatolia Mesoamerica (Olmec, Maya, Chacooans, Huorí ), North Africa, Mediterraneam….

7 Why they collapsed ? Strict dependence on rich land to rise Soil mismanagement Soil resources depletion Decline in agricultural yields Instability and conflicts The socio-economic point of view Declining in productivity systems and economic activities “Declining marginal returns” Catastrophes (earthquakes, climatic component…) Insuficent response to circunstances Intruders, conquerors Chance concatenation of events Social disfunctions, …….. Little consideration to “land resources depletion” We better take lessons from the past: we should deepen into the root of the problem wich basically seems to be the link between soil degradation and food security

8 “Erosion of Civilizations” Some enlightening literature Several writers have documented the decline of civilizations throughout history in parallel with the destruction of their soil Soil and civilization. 1976 (1952). Edward Hyams. New York: Harper & Row.. Hyams describes people as "parasites" of the soil. Already in the first A.D. Collumela wrote that “soil will retain its fertility indefinitely if properly cared for and frequently manured”

9 Aztecs and Mayan Empires Garduño, FAO,2000 They developed some techniques of SWC to increase agricultural yields and to adapt to their climatic and topographic conditions Not agreement on the reasons of their collapse. A kind of mystery In 1940s S. Cook propose the hypothesis of the soil exhaustion to explain the decline Today, deforestation, erosion, forced population displacement and climatic considerations are gaining acceptance

10 The Mayas Lowlands Advanced water conservation systems Some terraces

11 Ancient Maya deforestation: quantification of soil erosion rates by F.S. Anselmetti, D.A. Hadell, D. Ariztegui, M. Brinner and M.F. Rosenmeier.

12 Failure of their methods of soil conservation in deforested slopes

13 Bench Terrazes, an old Soil and Water Conservation System Yunnan old terraces Juliang Gao, 2013

14 The Inca Empire A case of abandon of the maintenance of Andenes (bench terraces) system The Inca Empire developed an outstanding and elaborated system of keeping productive soil in place in a very complicated and challenging environment High and varied agricultural yields under a complex social communal system Previous to the Spanish conquest the empire was in decline owing to civil wars and demographic recession. Atahualpa reached the throne after a devastating civil war against his brother Huascar The social and political instability trigger the gradual abandon of the use and maintenance of andenes The abandon of andenes, under a complex communal system, was a factor contributing to the fall of the Inca empire Kendall y Rodriguez, 2007

15 Traditional andenes system from Perú J. Blossiers Pinedo et al. FAO 2000

16 The Indus Valley Harappa Civilization Lack of capabilities on flood control for agricultural use, change on climate patterns, violence and disease played a key role in the collapse of the Harappa R. Shug et al., 2013 PloS One Artist’s reconstruction of the gateway and drain at the city of Harappa by Chris Sloan.

17 Initially flood supported farming in the Indus Valley allowed the development of agricultural surplus and the growth of Harappa's cities (rich soils) They do not develop irrigation capabilities relying in the summer monsoons floods But the monsoons started kept shifting south and being more erratic (increase of aridity) for adequate agricultural yields The residents migrated east to the Ganges basin where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out L. Giosan et al.,Prooc. Nat Aac. Sci. 2012 Using extensive field data to reveal the decline of the Indian monsoon and its consequences Lack of adaptation to a changing environment by adequate water-soil management

18 New World Encyclopedia, 2015 The Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia

19 T. Jacobsen & R.M. Adams, Science 1958 Mesopotamia: a case of sediments and salt

20 The climate pattern changes A. Glikson, 2015 Severe drought affecting Late Bronze Age Empires seems to have being a factor influencing the decline of Egyptian, Mycenaean, Hittites, Indus Valley and the Crescent Fertile civilizations Incapability of to adapt land management to a changing conditions Lack of reaction. Too little, too late Something to learn for our present situation? The link between “climate changes” and the collapse of civilizations is not well supported

21 History tells us that management and conservation of the land has given life expectancy of civilizations Recent historical great catastrophes are: Dust Bowl, 1930s and Drougths of Sahel, 1970s Some final considerations Such problems are not just ancient history We know now all the facts, but are modern world going to suffer the same fate? As Jared Diamond put it in his book Collapse, societies choose to fail or survive. Many ancient civilizations mined soil and accelerated soil erosion well beyond the pace of soil formation and soil capacity to sustain life We can say that man has succeeded into increasing locally and temporarily the productivity of soil but in general and until now has failed to develop a real sustainable land management

22 Conclusions There is not agreement on the reasons of the collapse of civilizations Little consideration to soil mismanagement and to land resources depletion History reveals soil and water conservation as crucial to he permanence of any civilization The management and conservation of the land has shaped human history Today we confront a CCh, increase land degradation and shrinking land available for food production Considering the dimension and perspectives of present world problems history tell us that we can not ignore not to repeat mistakes of the past, including errors on SWC issues Amen ¡¡

23 Thank you ¡ Mnogo van hvala ¡ Conserving land and water = Securing our common future

24 The Aztec and Maya empires agricultura maya dependía del sencillo sistema de tala y quema. Con base en este método agrícola, Orator F. Cook propuso en 1921 la hipótesis del agotamiento de los suelos para explicar el colapso maya. Hipótesis de agotamiento de la tierra similares están asociadas con la erosión, una agricultura intensiva y la competencia de pastos de sabana. Sin embargo, estudios recientes han demostrado que los mayas utilizaron una compleja variedad de técnicas agrícolas intensivas, explicando la alta población de las ciudades-estado mayas en el periodo Clásico. Los arqueólogos modernos ahora reconocen las sofisticadas y productivas técnicas de la agricultura intensiva practicada por los antiguos mayas, y varios de los métodos agrícolas mayas aún no han sido reproducidos. Los métodos de agricultura intensiva fueron desarrollados por todas las culturas mesoamericanas para aumentar su producción de alimentos y darles una ventaja competitiva sobre los pueblos menos hábiles.37 Estos métodos de agricultura intensiva incluían canales, terrazas, camellones, chinampas, el uso de heces humanas como fertilizante, pantanos estacionales o bajos, usando lodo de los bajos para crear campos fértiles, diques, presas, sistemas de riego, depósitos de agua, varios tipos de sistemas de almacenamiento de agua, sistemas hidráulicos, sistemas de recuperación de tierra pantanosa, agricultura itinerante, y otras técnicas agrícolas que aún no han sido plenamente comprendidas.38 La evidencia propuesta para el colapso ecológico sistémico incluye la deforestación, la sedimentación y la disminución de la diversidad biológica. Además de tierras montañosas, los mesoamericanos lograron explotar las tierras problemáticas de la selva tropical durante 1.500 años.39 Las técnicas agrícolas utilizadas por los mayas eran totalmente dependientes de un amplio suministro de agua. Los mayas lograron prosperar en lo que a la mayoría de los pueblos sería el territorio inhabitable. Su éxito durante más de dos milenios en este ambiente era "increíble".40

25 These three physiographic zones vary in drainage, slope, soil and vegetation. Much of the area lacks perennial fresh surface water, the most notable exceptions being the La Pasión and Usumacinta river drainages in the west, the Three Rivers (Holmul- Mopán-Poxte) region in the east, and thecentral Petén Lakes region. Monsoon-type rains inundate the area from May through December and provide the majority of fresh water. Annual rainfall averages between 1000 and 3000 millimeters and varies regionally, with the higher percentages falling in the south. Seasonal drought often occurs between January and April. Soil quality also varies regionally, the high potential of the soils in the Southern Pacific lowlands for intensive agriculture, however, soil quality is usually poor in humid tropic regions. Slope variation, ranging from rolling hills to steep escarpments, combined with deforestation and heavy rain makes erosion a major problem in the lowlands. Despite limitation set by soils, water, and slope, the Maya area was able to sustain large populations. Agricultural methods identified in the Maya lowlands include milpa, swidden, terracing, raised field agriculture, and arboriculture (cultivation of tree crops), such as The Ixim té, Ujuxte or Breadnut tree, Cacao, Zapodilla, Papaya, Guava (Patah) and Avocado. They also collect Chewing gum from the Chicozapote tree and rubber from the hevea tree, which they used for balls for their Ball Game, and to make water proof clothes and shoes, tropical fruits and medicinal plants, Dams have been documented in several sites, the largest in the Maya area is in Río Azul.La PasiónUsumacinta riverThree Riverscentral PeténSouthern Pacific lowlandsarboricultureCacao Ball Gamemedicinal plantsRío Azul The Petén Lowlands consist primarily of upland tropical rainforests, interrupted by patches of savanna and seasonal swamplands named bajos. (40%)Petén Lowlands tropical rainforests

26 Inca empire Previous to the Spanish conquest the impire was in decline owing to civil wars and demographic recession Luego de este periodo de apogeo el imperio entró en declive por diversos problemas, siendo el principal la confrontación por el trono entre los hijos de Huayna Cápac: los hermanos Huáscar y Atahualpa, que derivó incluso en una guerra civil. Entre los incas la viruela acabó con el monarca Huayna Capac, provocó la guerra civil previa a la aparición hispana y causó un desastre demográfico en el Tahuantinsuyo, que antes de la llegada de los españoles contaba con 14 millones de habitantes, mientras hacia el siglo XVIII contaba con apenas 1,5 millones. Finalmente Atahualpa vencería en 1532. Sin embargo su ascenso al poder coincidió con el arribo de las tropas españolas al mando de Francisco Pizarro, que capturaron al inca y luego lo ejecutaron. Con la muerte de Atahualpa en 1533 culminó el Imperio incaico Al ser los Andes una sociedad predominantemente agrícola,con una organización comunal complicada los incas supieron aprovechar al máximo el suelo, venciendo las adversidades que les ofrecía el accidentado terreno andino y las inclemencias del clima. La adaptación de técnicas agrícolas que ya se empleaban con anterioridad en distintas partes. La dificil y complicadautilizacion agricoloa del territorio se vio afectada por la inestabilidad social y politica Se fue produciendo un paulatino abandono de la utilizacion y mantenimiento de las zonas aterrazadas –andenes y waru waru (surcos que llenaban de agua alrededor de los cultivos) "la gente de guerra tiene muy sojuzgada a los que son labradores o gente del campo que entienden la agricultura". (Gonzalo Fernendez de Oviedo) A la llegada de los españoles era y a un imperio en descomposición El abndono de los andenes fue un factor que contribuyo a la caida del imperio incaico

27 Desertification as a Soil Security Issue

28 Soil Security Securitizing the ground, Grounding security (UNCCD Issue paper Nº 2, 2009) Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought Rubio, Andreu, 2009