1 Types of Research: Where do I begin to tell the story?R. A. Young ARCH 6815 Fall 2016
2 Overview—Methods & DataThree approaches: Qualitative: non-numeric traits Quantitative: numeric traits Mixed Methods: Combination of qualitative and quantitative NOTE: Numeric representations of qualities can be used in quantitative analysis
3 Overview—Research SpectrumQualitative and Quantitative are at two opposite ends of the research spectrum. 0% Numerical Foundation % Qualitative Mixed Quantitative
4 Overview—Getting StartedQualitative: Context and setting Stakeholders Research question Research process Findings
5 Overview—Getting StartedQuantitative: Context and setting Variables Research question Research process Findings
6 Overview—Inductive vs. DeductiveInductive logic: builds theory from the ground up, also known as “grounded theory.” Deductive logic: define a theory by testing hypotheses using statistical analysis.
7 Overview—Validity Validity: the extent to which the outcome accurately represents the answers to the research question. Quantitative analysis has four types of validity: Internal External Construct Statistical Conclusion
8 Overview—Validity Internal validity: the extent to which causal inference of the independent variable affects outcome. External validity: how well the results can be generalized to relevant populations, settings, treatments, or outcomes.
9 Overview—Validity Construct validity: the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring. Statistical conclusion validity: accuracy of the statistical relationship between the treatment and the outcome.
10 Overview—Validity Qualitative studies assess validity through the use of multiple instruments (e.g., case studies, surveys, interviews, focus groups) to define the theory. Mixed methods use both qualitative and quantitative to “triangulate” their findings.
11 Overview—Experimental DesignAllows causal inferences about dependent and independent variables Allows control to remove variable other than independent variables Reduces variability within treatment outcomes
12 Overview—Experimental DesignFour types: Randomized Quasi-experimental Natural Experiment Non-Experiment
13 Overview—Experimental DesignRandomized: two or more groups of random samples responding to an experimental treatment Schulz KF, Altman DG, Moher D; for the CONSORT Group (2010).
14 Overview—Experimental DesignQuasi-experimental: test hypotheses using a control group and pre-test measures that are compared to post-test measures.
15 Overview—Experimental DesignNatural Experiment: describe a contrast between a treatment and naturally occurring comparison conditions
16 Overview—Experimental DesignNon-Experiment: Lacks random assignment, pre-tests, and control groups (e.g. a simple survey)
17 Overview—Other FactorsFunding and Timeframe: dictates data collection Primary data: collected by the researcher Secondary data: gathered from other sources or existing publications and records
18 Worldview “…general orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher holds.” John Creswell (2009, 6) Affects researcher approach Introduces bias
19 Worldview and Framework(Creswell 2009, 5)
20 Worldview Post-positivism Constructivism Advocacy/ParticipatoryDeterministic Understanding Reductionism Multiple participant meanings Empirical observation and measurement Social and historical construction Theory verification Theory generation Advocacy/Participatory Pragmatism Political Consequence of actions Empowerment Issue-oriented Problem-oriented Collaborative Pluralistic Change-oriented Real-world practice oriented Creswell (2009, 6)
21 Worldview Post-positivism challenges notions about the absolute truth of knowledge and has deductive orientation. Constructivism is the basis for grounded theory and applies subjective meaning to their experiences.
22 Worldview Advocacy and participatory: 1980s reaction that post-positivism accommodated neither the marginalized or disenfranchised segments of society nor issues of social justice and that constructivism did not go far enough. Pragmatism: 1990s reaction that emerged “out of actions, situations and consequences rather than antecedent conditions(Creswell 2009, 10). Pragmatism seeks to find what works instead of a singular method.
23 Framework The organization of the parameters affecting the research question. Who? What? When? Where? How? Why?
24 Framework You are planning to rehabilitate a public space to better accommodate users. What should you consider?
25 Framework
26
27 Methods Quantitative: Involves things that can be counted. Identify a dependent variable and find out if one or more independent variables influence that dependent variable (Bryant 2004, 97). Qualitative: Involves non-numerical qualities. Experience from subject’s perspective through field data, observations, in-depth open-ended interviews, and written documents (Roberts 2010, 143). Mixed: Combination of quantitative and qualitative
28 Qualitative and Quantitative MethodsComparing Qualitative and Quantitative Research (Roberts 2009, 144)
29 Methods—Qualitative Qualitative research answers the how and why questions and “is often the best way to establish causality between variables” (Ewing 2007, 52)
30 Methods—Qualitative Miles and Huberman 1994, 6
31 Methods--QualitativeInterviews and focus groups Case studies Narrative and Phenomenology Archival, Building, and Site Research Visual Observation Grounded Theory Computer Simulation Participatory/Action Research/Design Charrette Ethnography
32 Methods—Quantitative“Quantitative methods use measurement and statistics to transform empirical data into numbers and to develop mathematical models that quantify behavior.” (Tracy, 2013, 36)
33 Methods—QuantitativeDescriptive Statistics Chi Square Correlations Difference of Means: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Linear Regression Logistic Regression Poisson and Negative Binomial Regression Cluster Analysis Multilevel Modeling Structural Equation Modeling Spatial Econometrics Bayesian Statistics
34 Methods—Mixed The relationship between the primary method (i.e., quantitative (QUAN) or qualitative (QUAL)) that drives the study and the secondary method (quantitative (quan) or qualitative (qual)) that is subordinate in the study approach In some instances each method may be of equal importance (QUAN-QUAL).
35 Convergent parallel approach (Edmunds & Kennedy, 2013:149)Methods—Mixed Convergent-Parallel: inquiry methods, data collection, analysis, and results can run in parallel to a point where they convergent and can be compared and contrasted with one another. Convergent parallel approach (Edmunds & Kennedy, 2013:149)
36 Methods—Mixed Embedded: secondary research is nested (embedded) within the primary research phases. QUAN qual QUAL quan or
37 Methods—Mixed Explanatory-Sequential: a quantitative analysis to identify results that need qualitative analysis and then interprets the qualitative findings to support or contrast the quantitative findings. QUAN data collection, analysis, and results qual data analysis and results Identify results for follow-up qual data collection Interpret QUAN qual Mixed methods research: follow up explanation design (Edmunds & Kennedy, 2013:164)
38 Methods—Mixed Exploratory-Sequential: qualitative analysis to identify results that can be further explained though quantitative analysis. qual data collection, analysis, and results QUAN data analysis and results Develop instruments QUAN data collection Interpret qual QUAN Exploratory-Sequential approach(Edmunds & Kennedy, 2013, 169)
39 Which Method? All in all, your selection of a research method should reflect the following factors: Intended purpose for research outcome(s) Research question(s) Philosophical approach or worldview Data required Method validity Available expertise (in-house or consultant) Available timeframe and phasing Available funding resources
40 Types of Research BibliographyBryant, Miles T The portable dissertation advisor. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Creswell, John Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 3rd Ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Creswell, John Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches, 3rd Ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Creswell, John W. and Vicki L. Plano Clark Designing and conduction mixed methods research, 2nd Ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Roberts, Carol The dissertation journey: A practical and comprehensive guide to planning, writing, and defending your dissertation, 2nd Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and process, 3rd Ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage
41 Types of Research For Further Reading: Cope, Meghan and Sarah Elwood Qualitative GIS: A mixed methods approach. Los Angeles CA: Sage. Edmonds, W. Alex and Tom D. Kennedy An applied reference guide to research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Hay, Iain. Ed Qualitative research methods in human geography, 2nd Ed. South Melbourne, Victoria, AU: Oxford University Press. Liamputtong, Pranee Qualitative research methods. South Melbourne, Victoria, AU: Oxford University Press. Limb, Melanie and Claire Dwyer, Eds. 2001, Qualitative methodologies for geographers: Issues and debates. London, ENG: Arnold.
42 Types of Research For Further Reading (continued): Maxwell, Joseph A A realist approach for qualitative research. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Morse, Janice M. and Linda Niehaus. Eds Mixed method design: principles and practices. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Padgett, Deborah K Qualitative and mixed methods in public health. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Plowright, David Using mixed methods: frameworks for an integrated methodology. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Tracy, Sarah J Qualitative research methods. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
43 Thank you!