1 United States History IUnit I: Colonization & Revolution

2 Lesson 1 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the goals of the course; Describe the expectations established by the instructor; Explain the course methodology that will be used throughout the semester; and Explain the theories on how the first Americans came to inhabit the Americas.

3 Problem 1. The Beringian Standstill Hypothesis“The First People Who Populated the Americas,” Melissa Hogenboom (March 30, 2017). What is the hypothesis made by researchers according to the author? What evidence is given to support the hypothesis? Why is this significant? Are there any weaknesses in the hypothesis? Is the hypothesis convincing? Explain. Given what you have learned, when do you believe the first Americans arrived in the Americas and how did they get here? What evidence can you use to support your conclusion?

4 Lesson 2 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the types of people that inhabited the Americas before European contact; Identify where the major state-level sedentary societies developed; Explain the types of people who lived in the West African kingdoms prior to the 1500s; Explain the societies, cultures, political structures, and economies of the indigenous Americans and West African peoples; Explain where, why, and how African kingdoms grew powerful; Explain what African slavery was like and contrast it to the Portuguese slavery model; and Describe the developments in exploration begun by the Portuguese in the 1400s.

5 Arrival of The Paleo-IndiansLand Bridge Theory: Paleo-Indians were hunter-gatherers who historians believe arrived in the Americas 15,000 years ago during the last ice age. They arrived after following large migratory animals (mammoths, mastodons, and giant bison) from Asia by crossing the Beringian land bridge, which was exposed because sea levels were 360 feet lower than today. The tip of South America was reached 11,000 years ago. Coastal Route Theory: The first Americans were coastal hunter-gatherers who arrived 40,000 years ago in small boats, eventually inhabiting coastal regions of the Americas. The climate warmed 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. Many of the large animals were killed off and native peoples diversified their food production by gathering, fishing, and hunting smaller animals. This allowed populations to grow. Expansion: Eventually the indigenous populations spread throughout North and South America and became diverse. By 1492 there were 375 distinct language groups in the Americas. Several permanent civilizations developed due to the domestication of wild plants and the establishment of complex agriculture. Most cultivated the “Three Sisters” (corn, squash, and beans).

6 Sedentary State-Level CivilizationsAndes Mountains: Inca (Ecuadorian & Peruvian Andes). Mesoamerica: Olmec (Central America); Maya (Yucatan and Central America); Aztec (Central Valley of Mexico); and Mixtec (Oaxaca region of Mexico). American Southwest: Hohokam (arid Arizona) known as canal-builders; Pueblo such as the Hopi and Zuni (arid Northeastern Arizona); and Anasazi (Four Corners region) known as cliff-dwellers. Mississippi Valley: Mississippian (mound builders)- largest city was Cahokia at the confluence of the Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, and Mississippi Rivers. Great Plains: Great Plains natives lived in grasslands and hunted bison. Eastern Woodlands (from Texas to the Atlantic): Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, and Natchez (Southeast); Algonquian (Northeast, Great Lakes Region & Canada) lived in wigwams; and Iroquois (Northeast) lived in longhouses and included the Iroquois Confederacy (living under the Great League of Peace Alliance): Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca.

7 Indigenous cultural SimilaritiesPolitically: Most lacked one single central political authority figure and power was often shared among many. Religiously: Most believed that spirits were all around them and in most living and inanimate objects in nature; the spirits could help or hinder human existence and survival. Often religious ceremonies were held to influence farming or hunting. Most believed in a single Creator. Land Ownership: Most property was seen as a common resource and not owned by individuals. Social Status: Social standing was important and most tribal leaders came from a small number of families. Generosity rather than the accumulation of goods was one of the most important traits; gift giving was very important. Tools: By 1492, they had not yet developed metal tools, machines, gunpowder, and long-distance navigational capability. Communication & Information: Oral tradition existed to pass down information as opposed to written language (Aztec, Maya, Inca, et al developed written languages and glyphs; no North American group had done so by 1492). Gender Relations: Most were matrilineal societies; women could own property; women took care of the household, children, and farming since men were often away hunting; and often men moved in with the wife’s family upon marriage. Most indigenous groups saw Europeans as just another group among many in their lives.

8 Indigenous Cultural DifferencesBy 1492, there were 375 language groups with a multitude of different local variations and dialects. Indigenous social systems and social ordering varied greatly from one group to another. Although most indigenous groups believed in one Creator being, there were many different creation myths and religions. Each group had its own diplomatic agenda- enemies, friends, and trading partners. Each group’s identity centered on its immediate social group (tribe, village, chiefdom, or confederacy). Each also had its own worldview. There was no sense that all indigenous peoples were united as one. They saw themselves as distinct and separate groups.

9 Quick Check How were Native American civilizations similar to one another? How were they different? Would it be incorrect to consider them all together as a single group? Explain.

10 Wealthy West African KingdomsAlong the Niger and Senegal Rivers, rich and thriving trading kingdoms developed in order to trade in Saharan salt and gold found along the Atlantic coast. Ghana: : Ghana supplied much of the gold found in the Mediterranean region. It had large towns, advanced architecture, complex trade, and political stability. Mali: : Invasions weakened Ghana and a new and larger kingdom resulted. Mansa Musa was the most famous ruler of Mali and he increased the role of Islam. The Muslim faith and scholarship helped establish the University at Timbuktu. Songhai: : Mali weakened after the death of Mansa Musa and in 1468 Songhai conquered Mali. Songhai continued the Muslim faith, grew rich in trade, and became the largest, richest, and most powerful West African kingdom. Other Smaller West African Kingdoms: Benin (tropical forest along the Gulf of Guinea); and Hausa (seven cities in Nigeria & Niger).

11 Cultural Characteristics of African KingdomsLike the indigenous peoples of the Americas, there was no sense that all African peoples were united as one. They saw themselves as distinct and separate groups. Religion: Traditional beliefs varied from one group to another, but most included a Supreme Creator. Many traditional African beliefs held that spirits were all around and in most living and inanimate objects in nature. When a person died, he would also become one of the spirits that could intervene in human affairs and survival. Over time, elements of Islam were adopted in many parts of Africa. In many places, what resulted was a mixture of Islam and traditional beliefs. Land Ownership: Land did not belong to individuals, but rather, extended family networks dating back to ancient ancestors. Peasants worked the land for an official loyal to the king who received tribute/taxes but peasants could not be removed or sold away from the land. Land was worked in common for the benefit of the whole village and the harvest was shared. Wealth: Wealth was determined based on how many slaves or wives a man owned and not how much individual property he had.

12 West African Slave TradeSlavery was important to West African economy. Slaves were commodities for trade just like gold, salt, ivory, and other valuables. West African rulers combined to sell approximately 1,000 slaves per year to Arab traders (who brought them to the Mediterranean) prior to the 1400s. Who Became Slaves? People who were conquered or captured in war; Criminals or undesirables in society; People who owed a debt to another; or Those who sold themselves into slavery to help their families out financially. Traditional Features of West African Slavery: Slaves were adopted into the family of their masters. Slaves could marry and their children were not automatically slaves. Slaves could become important officials or soldiers. Slaves could accumulate wealth, purchase slaves of their own, or buy their own freedom back. Slavery was not based on racial superiority or inferiority.

13 Quick Check How were many African civilizations similar to many Native American civilizations? Would it be incorrect to consider all Africans together as a single group? Explain.

14 Portuguese Exploration of AfricaWith scientific advances in maritime technology (compass, astrolabe, and quadrant), Portugal began exploring the islands off of the coast of Africa in the early 1400s: Canary Islands (controlled by Castile but conquered by Portugal in 1402 (ceded back to Castile in 1418)); Madeira (uninhabited) 1420; Azores 1431 (inhabited for only 150 years at that time); and Cape Verde Islands (uninhabited) In 1443, Portugal set up a fortress on the island or Arguin (modern-day Mauritania) as a base for its exploration of Africa. Between the Portuguese explored Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. In 1469, the Portuguese Fernão Gomes received the exclusive right to explore Africa for 5 years. By 1471, Gomes reached the gold rich West African kingdoms (later re-named the “Gold Coast”). Portuguese Trade Networks in West Africa: Goods: pepper, salt, ivory, gold, copper, and African slaves. The Portuguese were granted permission to trade in Africa from powerful West African kings, who allowed them to establish fortified trading posts and fortresses along the African coast to keep out other European rivals. Mutually beneficial relationships developed between African kings and the Portuguese traders. In 1482, the first major European trading fort was established; it traded in slaves. By 1500, Europeans purchased an average of 1,800 slaves per year. At first, most worked on sugar plantations on Madeira, in the Azores, or in the Canaries. These plantations became the models for American plantations. Before long, vast numbers of African slaves were transported to the Americas every year to work on Caribbean or American plantations.

15 Problem 2. Olaudah EquianoThe Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself. Vol. I, Ch. II (pp ) (1789). What was the social status of Equiano’s family? What evidence can you cite to support your conclusion? Why was Equiano captured? Who captured him? Explain your answers. Describe Equiano’s journey from his village to the coast. What hope was Equiano holding onto during his journey to the coast? When did Equiano first realize his fate?

16 Lesson 3 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how the Crusades and Renaissance led to the Age of Exploration; Describe the Portuguese efforts to establish trade in Africa and to discover an oceanic trade route to Asia around the tip of Africa; Describe the Spanish efforts in finding a western oceanic trade route to Asia; Describe Columbus’s four voyages to the “New” World; Explain how the Conquistadors were able to defeat great native empires in the “New” World such as the Aztec and Incan Empires; Compare the Reconquista to the conquest of the Americas; and Define and describe the Columbian Exchange and explain how it changed the world on both sides of the Atlantic.

17 Middle Ages The Fall of the Roman Empire: Crusades: The Silk Road:In 476 A.D. the Western Roman Empire fell and Western Europe descended into the Middle Ages, a time of constant war, famine, disease, poverty, and instability. More than 1/3 of the European population died of Black Death; those who survived faced daily conflict and war. Feudalism developed as a way of life, where the poor turned to the rich for protection in exchange for loyalty and labor. The wealthy lords and knights of Europe controlled fiefs granted to them by upper lords (who in turn received fiefs from the king). On their fiefs, lords and knights built large castles as defensive structures in order to protect the local people in times of attack or war. The rest of the time, the serfs (peasants who accepted feudal obligations in exchange for protection and land to work) provided their lords with labor and a portion of their crops. Life was so difficult and dangerous that people were devoted to the Church in the hopes that they might go to heaven after death and that the afterlife would be a release from their sufferings on Earth. Crusades: In 1095, Pope Urban II called for the Christian knights of Europe to assemble and engage in holy wars against the Muslims for control of the Holy Land (Jerusalem), called the Crusades. By 1291, after Nine Crusades, the European Crusaders lost all of the land that they had gained in the Holy Land. Nevertheless, their exposure to Middle Eastern and Asian goods and ideas during the Crusades peaked their interest. By 1200, the European demand for spices, silks, and gems from the East increased and trade began between the Middle East and Western Europe. The Silk Road: The problem was that until the late 1400s the only way for Europeans to obtain Middle Eastern and Asian products was to use a network of Muslim tradesmen who traveled over the long, dangerous and expensive trade route known as the Silk Road. Europeans longed for a way to get Eastern products faster, quicker, cheaper, and more efficiently.

18 Renaissance The Renaissance: The Renaissance included:The Renaissance was a period in European history between the 14th and 16th centuries. It was a more secular age and encouraged freedom of thought, the importance of the individual, and a renewed interest in classical learning. The Renaissance included: A renewed interest in the arts and sciences; An interest in lands beyond Europe; The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1430s, which allowed books to be printed in larger quantities, quicker, and cheaper. Information and knowledge about the world, science, and religion was now available to people who were previously deprived of such information. Reading the Bible on their own for the first time, many began to question the authority and deeds of the Catholic Church- leading to the Reformation; Others read about mysterious lands and fortunes to be made in India and China, peaking their curiosities (books like Marco Polo’s The Travels of Marco Polo (1298); and Yet others read to learn about science, technology, engineering, astronomy, navigation, and sailing in order to facilitate long oceanic voyages and avoid the Silk Road monopoly held by Muslim traders. A rise of individualism and experimentation. The Reconquista (Re-Conquest): In 1492, together with the Portuguese, King Ferdinand (of Aragon) and Queen Isabella (of Castile) finally expelled the Muslim Moors out of the Iberian Peninsula by seizing Grenada (the last Muslim stronghold). The Reconquista inspired a new zeal and spirit of the “Catholic Monarchs” in spreading the Catholic faith abroad.

19 Quick Check Why did Europeans suddenly become interested in Asia?Why did they want to travel by sea? Why didn’t they travel by sea in the past? In what ways did the printing press change life in Europe in the early 1400s?

20 Portuguese ExplorationPrince Henry the Navigator: In 1419, Prince Henry founded a school of navigation and exploration and sponsored several expeditions along the western coast of Africa. New Maritime Technology: Navigation tools: compass, astrolabe, and quadrant. Caravel: sturdier ship with a stern rudder, three masts, and a combination of square and triangular lateen sails. African Trade: By the mid-1400s, the Portuguese wanted to trade for African gold, ivory, and slaves. Asian Trade Routes: By the late-1400s, the Portuguese wanted to find a direct trade route to Asia by rounding the tip of Africa. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the tip of Africa but returned home after facing a mutiny attempt, severe storms, and a lack of supplies (he renamed the tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope). In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first European to successfully reach Asia by sea. Da Gama rounded the tip of Africa, reached Mozambique, and with Chinese traders and an Arab pilot, sailed across the Indian Ocean to reach Calicut, India. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral led 13 merchant ships along da Gama’s route but went so far west into the Atlantic Ocean in his attempt to round the tip of Africa (probably intentionally) that he landed on the eastern point of modern-day Brazil and claimed the land for Portugal. Cabral completed the voyage to Asia and set up peaceful trade relations in India. He also established the Portuguese land claim to Brazil.

21 Spanish Exploration & ColumbusWestern Trade Route: With the Portuguese discovery of western islands (Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde Islands) the Spanish hoped that other islands might lie further to the west and that eventually the islands would lead to China. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella finally agreed to sponsor Christopher Columbus’s voyage westward in 1492. Columbus was a mariner from Genoa but trained by the Portuguese. A Catholic (and sailing for the Catholic Monarchs), Columbus wanted to eventually convert the Chinese to Christianity and to recruit the Chinese and their wealth in another Crusade against the Muslims. Columbus was influenced by Viking stories of lands to the west discovered during the 9th and 10th centuries called Vinland, reaching modern-day Newfoundland around the year 1000 A.D. Columbus (like all other mariners and the educated elite at the time) knew that the world was round, unfortunately, he underestimated the size of the Earth and the length of his voyage. Columbus’s First Voyage: 3 ships (Niña, Pinta, & Santa Maria) & 90 men; Set sail August 3, 1492; Reached land (present-day Bahamas) on October 12, 1492 and named the first island San Salvador (33 day voyage from the Canaries); Columbus landed, gave thanks to God, and claimed the land for Spain; He also explored the coasts of Cuba and Hispaniola; and He left 38 men at La Navidad on Hispaniola to form a settlement in his absence and returned to Spain to deliver the good news and to bring 10 natives back with him for conversion to Christianity. Columbus justified claiming land occupied by other people because they were not Christians and he claimed that they should be converted (legally he would not have been able to claim land owned by other Christians). Division of the “New” World: In 1493, the Pope divided the new world between the Portuguese and Spanish and established the Line of Demarcation. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, Portugal and Spain slightly changed the division, which ended up giving Portugal part of eastern Brazil.

22 Columbus’s Later ExpeditionsIn 1493, Columbus made a second voyage to the “New” World (exploration, colonization of La Isabella, & search for gold- 17 ships & 1,000 men). (Modern Names) Dominica, Guadeloupe, Montserrat, Antigua, St. Martin, St. Croix, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (where he found that the settlers that he left had been killed), Cuba, and Jamaica. Then he returned to Spain. In 1498, Columbus made a third voyage to the “New” World (exploration of Portuguese claims- 6 ships). (Modern Names) Trinidad, Venezuela, Margarita Island, Tobago, Grenada, Hispaniola. Then he returned to Spain in chains. Columbus returned to Spain in chains and was charged with mismanagement (acquitted of these charges by King Ferdinand). In 1502, Columbus made a fourth (and final) voyage to the “New World” (exploration for a westward passage to Asia- 4 ships). (Modern Names) Martinique, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama. Columbus heard of a strait to the “other ocean” and sailed up the Río Belén in Panama but it was a trap and Columbus’s crew was attacked by natives. Most of Columbus’s men died in the native attacks and his ships were damaged. Columbus and a small group of Spaniards fled for their lives, hit a storm that further damaged their only remaining ship, and were beached in Jamaica for over a year. Finally, one of Columbus’s men rowed a canoe to Hispaniola and a rescue vessel finally picked up the sickly Columbus, who returned to Spain in 1504. Columbus died in 1506 believing he had reached Asia. He never realized that he stumbled upon a new continent.

23 Quick Check Why did the Spanish have reason to believe that they could reach Asia by sailing west? Was Columbus a hero or villain? Should we celebrate him today?

24 Other Spanish ExpeditionsNations and individuals throughout Europe soon heard about Columbus’s discoveries and wanted to explore as well. The reasons for exploration fell into three categories known as “the three G’s”: Gold- to obtain wealth; Glory- for national glory and fame; and God- to spread Christianity. John Cabot- sailing for England, reached Newfoundland in He set up England’s land claim in North America. Amerigo Vespucci- exploring for Portugal between and later Spain, announced that the land they were exploring was not part of Asia, but rather a new continent, inhabited by new people; the Americas were named after him. Vasco Núñez de Balboa- exploring for Spain, became the first to cross the isthmus of Panama and see the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Ferdinand Magellan- sailing for Spain, became the first to circumnavigate the globe between (well his crew did, since he was killed by natives in the Philippines during the Battle of Mactan in 1521). Juan Ponce de León- exploring for Spain, conquered Puerto Rico. In 1513, he searched for the mythical “Fountain of Youth” in modern-day Florida and the Southeastern U. S. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo- exploring for Spain, explored the Pacific coast all the way to present-day Oregon in the 1530s and 1540s. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Hernando de Soto, and Francisco Vásquez de Coronado- each explored for Spain, looked for the fabled “Seven Cities of Gold,” and explored the Gulf region and modern-day Southwestern U.S.

25 Spanish Empire in the AmericasAztecs: In 1519, Spanish conquistadors (conquerors), led by Hernán Cortés learned about the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán and the gold it was rumored to contain. Cortés gained native allies, kidnapped the Aztec emperor Montezuma, and demanded gold. Eventually Cortés and his 200,000 native allies defeated Montezuma and gained vast supplies of Aztec gold. The Aztec gold and silver only encouraged more conquistadors to attempt similar conquests. Inca: In the 1530s Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro defeated the Incan Empire in the Peruvian Andes using a similar model to Cortés. He arrived during a civil conflict for the throne between Atahualpa and his brother Huáscar. He then kidnapped Atahualpa at Cajamarca, paralyzing the Inca. While in captivity Pizarro demanded large quantities of gold. Once 24 tons of Incan gold was supplied to Pizarro, the Spanish assassinated Atahualpa. Spanish Justification: The Spanish argued that they were there to convert the natives to Christianity. Upon arriving in an area they read the requiermiento. Any native resistance thereafter was grounds to justify war, plunder, and the confiscation of native property and lands. This was a mirror image to the argument made during the Reconquista over the Muslims in Iberia. Spanish Advantages: Guns, Germs, and Steel (Jared Diamond book). Weapons (steel-edged swords, pikes, crossbows, & guns); Horses and War Dogs (Bull Mastiffs); Native Allies; and Disease (smallpox, diphtheria, bubonic plague, & cholera). With the devastation of the indigenous populations, the Spanish needed a new source of labor to work their mines and plantations.

26 Quick Check Describe how so few Spanish were able to conquer so many natives. What was the typical Spanish “game plan” in conquering Native American groups? How did the Spanish justify plundering and making war against Native American groups?

27 Columbian Exchange Columbian Exchange- widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, peoples, and ideas between the Americas and the “Old” World. Introduced into the “Old” World from the Americas: Plants: corn, potato, tomato, sweet potato, pepper, cacao, avocado, cashew, cotton, cranberries, peanut, pineapple, pumpkin, quinoa, strawberry, sunflower, tobacco, vanilla, zucchini… Animals: guinea pig, alpaca, llama, & turkey… Disease: syphilis… Introduced into the Americas from the Old World: Plants: sugar cane, coffee, banana, orange, grapes, apple, peach, pear, mango, watermelon, asparagus, carrot, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, kale, eggplant, garlic, onion, pea, rice, barley, rye, oats, millet, wheat, turnip.. Animals: horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens… Disease: measles, chicken pox, smallpox, diphtheria, influenza, leprosy, malaria, yellow fever, bubonic plague, typhoid, typhus, cholera, whooping cough… New animals roamed the American landscape, rooted up native fields, ate, and destroyed crops. New crops introduced into Europe enriched and improved their diets and overall health. European population growth from 80-million in 1492 to 180-million by 1800. New diseases introduced into the Americas from the “Old” World devastated the native populations. In 1492, native populations were estimated to have been about 90 million people. By 1650, native populations were under 20 million people, mostly due to exposure to disease for which they had no immunity. Maritime trade and migration opened up the Atlantic Ocean as a superhighway of exchange of goods, people, and ideas.

28 Problem 3. Columbus’s Discovery LetterLetter of Christopher Columbus to Sant Ángel (King Ferdinand’s Minister of Finance) (1493). Why did Columbus write a letter to Luis de Sant Ángel? How did Columbus describe the people that he encountered? Why do you think he portrayed them as he did? How did Columbus use Christianity in his letter? Was he a religious man? Where did Columbus think he was according to the letter? Was Columbus’s encouraging enough to warrant a second expedition?

29 Lesson 4 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the structure of the Spanish colonial government and its division into viceroyalties; Describe the social caste system established by the Spanish to clearly define people into different social classes; Describe the different types of Spanish settlements and how towns were organized; Explain the economic goals of Spanish colonization; Describe the role of missionaries in the “New” World and explain why the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 took place; Describe the structure of the French colonial government; Explain how the French interacted with the natives and how that differed from the Spanish; Describe the economic goals of French colonization; and Formulate historical arguments in favor of and against the humanity and rights of Native Americans in the s using primary sources from the era as evidence.

30 The Spanish Empire Spanish Empire: Governing the Empire:Geographically, the Empire included: Spain, the Philippines, South America (except for Brazil), Central America, Southern North America, and several Caribbean Islands. Spanish galleons transported large quantities of gold and silver from the “New” World back to Spain. It was a well-planned, urban empire with great cities such as México City, Quito, and Lima. Cities and towns were set out in a grid pattern with a great central plaza. The highest social classes lived closest to the central plaza and the lowest classes lived further away. Each town included: churches, hospitals, monasteries, government buildings, and schools. Governing the Empire: Encomiendas, or large tracts of land and the natives who lived on the land, were granted to conquistadors and offer to other Spaniards to entice them to settle in the Americas. This essentially amounted to native slave labor and drew 225,000 Spanish settlers in the 16th century. Three Types of Settlements: Pueblos- towns with central marketplaces. Misiones- religious settlements for conversion and education. Presidios- forts (often established near misiones). The Spanish Empire was divided into two Viceroyalties. Each was ruled by the Council of the Indies, a Viceroy, and an Archbishop. Nueva España (New Spain)- in México City (México, Central America, Southeastern North America, and the Caribbean). Perú- in Lima (all of South America except for Brazil). The Spanish developed a complex system of racial hierarchy (the Spanish social caste system (castas)): Peninsulares (born in Spain); Criollos (born in New Spain to Spanish parents); Mestizos (born to mixed Spanish and Native American parents); Indios (Native Americans); and Esclavos (Slaves).

31 Spanish Settlements In North AmericaFlorida: The Spanish established a settlement in Florida to counter foreign pirates attacking Spanish treasure ships and the French Huguenots (Protestants), who were attempting to colonize the coast. Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés successfully destroyed the Huguenot settlement of Fort Caroline (present-day Jacksonville) in 1562, and in , established St. Augustine as a presidio to prevent further settlement attempts by the French. Founded in 1565, St. Augustine became the first permanent Spanish settlement in North America but few settlers arrived until friars established misiones nearby. By 1763, Florida had only 4,000 Spanish residents. New Mexico: In the 1590s, Juan de Oñate established the New Mexico colony north of the Río Grande and the misión settlement of Santa Fe became its capital in 1610. Few settlers were willing to relocate to North American settlements. Most were only successful as misiones. In New Mexico 50 misiones were established. The friars required that natives abandon and destroy idols, dress, cook, eat, and speak like Spaniards. Often in the “New” World, natives publicly converted to Christianity but privately held onto their traditional beliefs or mixed traditional beliefs with Christian beliefs (syncretism). In the 1660s and 1670s, the friars discovered the Pueblo secrets, brought the violators before a branch of the Inquisition, and ordered harsh punishments against them. Pueblo Revolt of fed up with their treatment, a shaman named Popé led the Pueblo and Apache natives in a war against the Spanish, killing 400 colonists, destroying many misiones, and pushing the Spanish and converted natives out of New Mexico. Pueblo Revolt was the most complete and successful victory of natives over Europeans ever in North America. Internal conflict continued with the Pueblo and Apache and soon after Popé died in 1690, the Spanish reclaimed New Mexico in 1692.

32 Quick Check How did the Spanish organize their society?What types of settlements did the Spanish establish and what were their purposes? Did the Spanish goals in the “New” World change over time from their initial goals?

33 French Settlements In North AmericaFrench Exploration: In 1534, Jacques Cartier explored coastal North America on behalf of France, looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia. Because of Cartier’s exploration and land claim, the French claimed a large tract of land in North America along the St. Lawrence River, into Canada, along the Great Lakes, and down the Mississippi River, which it called Nouvelle France (New France). Trade in Nouvelle France: Unlike the Spanish, the French did not look to establish large permanent settlements or cities in North America and never had a significant population of settlers here. Instead of using the natives for forced labor, they wanted to trade with them. Business interests: fish, whales, seals, and animal furs (especially beaver). Trade with natives: metal arrowheads, tools, knives, hatchets, and kettles. Most native groups wanted to trade with the French to keep them (and their goods) away from enemies. The French wanted to work with the natives as traders so that they could prosper financially. They had little incentive to take native lands, capture, enslave, or fight against the natives. Québec: In 1608, Samuel de Champlain (under orders from a French trading company) built a fortified trading post at Québec- the first permanent European settlement in Canada. For the natives, trading partnerships with other groups often meant military alliances in times of war. The French (with their superior weaponry) were sometimes brought into native conflict in this way. In 1609, the French were brought into a Montagnais, Algonquin, and Huron attack against the Iroquois near Lake Champlain. The Iroquois remembered this attack and continually attacked French settlements for nearly 150 years thereafter. Jesuit Missionaries in Nouvelle France: Jesuits led the conversion effort of the natives in Nouvelle France but allowed a high degree of freedoms and allowed natives to maintain their traditional social structures.

34 Living in Nouvelle FranceGovernment: The French king appointed a military-governor general, a civil administrator called an Intendant, and a Catholic bishop. Settlement was slow. By 1700, there were only 19,000 French colonists (life was difficult with hard work clearing land, cold winters, and native raids). Many coureurs de bois (French woodsman or fur traders) married native women and had mixed children known as métis. Alliance: In 1701, the French formed an alliance with the Algonquian peoples of the Great Lakes Region, which was primarily for trade and to help counter Iroquois attacks Réne-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle & Louisiana: In 1673, Jesuit priest Jacques Marquette and fur trader Louis Joliet located the Mississippi River. In 1682, La Salle set out on a voyage to find a Northwest Passage to Asia; he headed south along the Mississippi River all the way to the Gulf of Mexico, claiming the land for France, and naming it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV of France. In 1718, the French founded New Orleans, which became the most important trading town in Nouvelle France. By 1731, the only settlers in the Louisiana Territory were 2,000 French settlers and 4,000 African slaves. Rival England: The French maintained control of the Great Lakes, St. Lawrence River, Mississippi River, and New Orleans mainly to prevent France’s rival, England, from further expanding.

35 Quick Check How did the French settlement of North America differ from the Spanish settlement of the “New” World? How did their treatment of Native Americans differ?

36 Problem 4. Bartolomé De Las Casas: Hero or Villain?https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9XWXlxAlRm0 Was Bartolomé de Las Casas a hero or a villain? Explain. Bartolomé de Las Casas: New Laws in the Spanish Empire: Passed in 1542, the New Laws prevented native enslavement. Native slavery was replaced by the Repartimiento System- natives were free and entitled to wages but still had to complete a fixed amount of labor each year (many abuses remained). Importation of African Slaves Began. Black Legend: Las Casas’s book, A Very Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies, painted the Spanish and Catholics in a horrendous light throughout Europe. The Black Legend portrayed the image of Spain as a uniquely brutal and exploitative colonizer. The Black Legend persisted, became one of the motivations for Protestant settlement of the “New” World, and the Protestant effort to convert the natives. Increased tensions between Catholics and Protestants in the years following the Reformation. Martin Luther’s 95 theses were nailed on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany on October 31,

37 Problem 5. Bartolomé De Las Casas v. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda DebateDebate Questions: Are Native Americans human beings, with souls, and capable of Christianity? Do Native Americans deserve protection under the laws against cruelty and forced labor or is violence against them and forced labor permissible given their nature?

38 Lesson 5 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the goals of the first English settlements in North America; Hypothesize as to what happened to the Roanoke settlers; Describe the Jamestown settlement, its failures and successes; Describe the causes and effects of Bacon’s Rebellion; and Describe the settlement of the other Southern Colonies by England.

39 English Motives For Settlement & The First AttemptsProblems in England (Push Factors): Financial Issues: Growing population; Stagnant economy; and Increased poverty. Protestant Reformation: In 1534, King Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church when the Pope refused to grant him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Henry established the Church of England, but many in England claimed that it was still far too Catholic and needed to be purified and made more Protestant-like. Anti-Catholic sentiment persisted as a result of the Black Legend; an English-Protestant America would be a great improvement over one controlled by the brutal Catholic Spanish; and England would spread “true” Christianity to the natives. Irish containment (mid-1500s through the 1600s): English attempted to conquer Ireland (beginning with Henry VIII’s Tudor Conquest that started in 1536) which was expensive and rather unsuccessful. The “wild” Irish would later be compared to the “wild” natives of the “New” World. Nationalism & Glory: England’s stake in the “New” World race for colonies. Wealth: Business opportunity; Individual opportunity; and Vast territories of land for the taking, whereas England’s land was all accounted for. American Solution: Send the surplus population of poor workers to America to make money for private businesses in mining and plantation crops. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (Newfoundland in 1582) & Sir Walter Raleigh (Roanoke in 1584) each led failed attempts at colonization in North America in the 1580s.

40 Lost Colony of Roanoke American Solution to England’s Financial Problems: Send poor workers to America to make money for private businesses in mining and plantation crops. Sir Walter Raleigh & the Lost Colony of Roanoke: Raleigh was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I, who permitted Raleigh to send an expedition to colonize in America. Raleigh twice attempted to colonize the Island of Roanoke, off the coast of modern-day North Carolina. 1584- the first expedition arrived at Roanoke and established a settlement on the island. Their ship returned to England in to obtain more supplies, leaving 117 men at the settlement. 1587- the second expedition arrived at Roanoke with 115 men and women determined to establish a permanent settlement there but the only evidence they could find of the men they left behind was one skull. The new group of settlers attempted a second settlement on the island. Unfortunately, they were undersupplied because not all of their ships completed the journey. As a result, late in 1587, Governor John White returned to England for supplies. 1590- because of the ongoing war against Spain, White’s return to Roanoke was delayed. When he returned in 1590 there was no sign of the colonists. Only two clues were found: the word “CROATOAN” was carved onto a fence post and the letters “CRO” were found on a tree. Everything on the island was dismantled, including the buildings, and no signs of struggle were detected. Croatoan was a nearby island (modern-day Cape Hatteras) and it was also a neighboring native group. After a brief investigation the colonists could not be located. Hypotheses on what could have happened: Integration into nearby native groups; Spanish attack or kidnapping; Native attack or kidnapping; and Moved to more fertile or better land.

41 Jamestown Settlement In 1606, King James I granted a charter (which Elizabeth I had promised in 1603) to the Virginia Company of London. Virginia Company was a Joint Stock Company, owned by wealthy London bankers and merchants who invested money in the hopes that their business would prove successful and they would profit from establishing their plantations in America. Jamestown (named after King James I): Located on the James River on the Chesapeake Bay and served two important purposes for the English: To earn a profit for the Virginia Company; and As a privateering port from which the English could raid Spanish treasure galleons on their way from Cuba to Spain. Local natives were the Powhatan and Chief Powhatan wished to have a good trading relationship with the English but they found themselves in constant conflict over land (Pocahontas became an intermediary and assisted in maintaining peace between the English and Powhatan people). Captain John Smith saved the colony from destruction ordering the men to plant food crops instead of searching for gold and enforcing the policy “you don’t work, you don’t eat!” There was no gold to be had near Jamestown; the business was initially a major failure until John Rolfe (who later married Pocahontas) illegally brought home tobacco seeds from the Spanish Caribbean. Tobacco became vital for the Virginia Company. Spanish tobacco grew well in the Chesapeake and it soon became known as “Green Gold.” Headright System: To encourage settlement, the English offered 50 acres of land to anyone who paid for a person’s ocean passage. Wealthy men often paid for many people’s passages (poor, indentured servants, and slaves), resulting in the accumulation of vast tracts of land. The Virginia House of Burgesses became America’s first representative assembly in colonial America (average men could select 2 seats in the assembly). Powhatan Problem- eventually the colonists took virtually all of the Powhatan lands and the two sides went to war again in By 1632, the Powhatan warriors were badly defeated, disease stricken, and starving; they reluctantly gave up their lands and established peace with the English colonists. War raged on and off for half of a century thereafter.

42 Quick Check In what ways were the English goals in colonizing America different from the Spanish goals? In what ways were the English goals in colonizing America similar to the Spanish goals? How were English colonization attempts in America related to Spain and Spanish colonization?

43 Bacon’s Rebellion Colonial Virginia: Bacon’s Rebellion:Over time the fertile land in the tidewater region was all claimed and cultivated so new settlers moved into the interior (less fertile land). Royal Governor William Berkeley raised taxes on planters and gave breaks to his wealthy politician friends. In 1675, war again raged against natives near the Potomac River and the settlers wanted to annihilate all of the natives. Berkeley did not agree and the colonists rebelled. Bacon’s Rebellion: Led by Nathaniel Bacon, colonists rebelled against Governor Berkeley for his failure to solve their native problems and went around killing all natives that they could (hostile and peaceful alike). Next, Bacon’s followers marched to Jamestown, drove Berkeley out, and burned the town. Bacon died unexpectedly of disease one month later; the rebellion collapsed and Berkeley returned. Unfortunately, his reputation and credibility were ruined so the king appointed a new governor to replace him. Bacon’s Rebellion proved that poor farmers needed to be taken seriously and would not tolerate a government catering only to the wealthy elite.

44 Settlement of the Other Southern ColoniesTwo Types of English Colonies Emerged: Royal Colonies- belonged to the crown. Proprietary Colonies- belonged to powerful individuals or companies (often through charters). Maryland (named after King Charles I’s wife Mary): In 1632, Maryland became a Proprietary Colony given to Lord Baltimore (the Calvert family) by the king as a refuge for persecuted Catholics from England. In the end, more Protestants settled in Maryland than Catholics. Carolina (named after King Charles II): In 1670, the Carolina Colony was established as a Proprietary Colony given to 8 wealthy aristocrats known as the “Lords Proprietor,” none of whom actually settled in Carolina. In 1691, the Carolina Colony split into North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1729, the king took over control of the colonies as Royal Colonies. Georgia (named after King George II): In 1732, James Oglethorpe and a group of trustees established Georgia as a debtor’s colony and a buffer zone between Spanish Florida and South Carolina. It was set up under very strict rules (no drinking, no gambling, no prostitutes, no slaves) to provide debtors with a way to pay back their debts as an alternative to serving jail sentences in England. In 1752, colonists protested the strict rules and Georgia became a Royal Colony; the regulations were quickly lifted.

45 Problem 6. A Discourse Concerning Western PlantingRichard Hakluyt, A Discourse Concerning Western Planting (1584). Summary by Elizabeth Wambold (Lehigh University). Who was the intended audience of Hakluyt’s work? What were his most compelling reasons for English settlement of America? What misconceptions about natives did Hakluyt perpetuate? Would this work have convinced you if you were the king or queen?

46 Problem 7. Captain John SmithCaptain John Smith, Generall Historie of Virginia, Book III (1612). olonial/jamestwn/colonist.html Who was the intended audience of Smith’s work? What challenges does Smith describes concerning the journey and establishing of the Jamestown settlement? What challenges does Smith describe concerning the Native Americans?

47 Lesson 6 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain who the Puritans and Separatists were, the differences between them, and the issues that they each had with the Church of England; Explain how Plymouth was founded and the role of the Mayflower Compact; Explain the motivations of the English settlers to emigrate to New England; and Describe how each of the New England Colonies were founded.

48 Religious Unrest in EnglandIn 1534, King Henry VIII of England broke away from the Catholic Church when the Pope refused to grant him a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry wanted to divorce Catherine because she was too old to have children and they did not have a male heir to take the throne upon Henry’s death. Thus, Henry VIII started his own church, the Church of England (or Anglican Church) that was identical to the Catholic Church except for two things: (1) the king would be in charge and not the Pope in Rome, and (2) divorce would be allowed. Henry went through a total of 6 wives before his son Edward VI was born: Catherine of Aragon (divorced); Anne Boleyn (beheaded); Jane Seymour (died); Anne of Cleves (divorced); Catherine Howard (beheaded); and Catherine Parr (survived and was widowed; she gave birth to a son, Edward who reigned for 6 years after Henry’s death). There were many Protestants in England after the Protestant Reformation who thought that Henry’s Church of England was too much like the Catholic Church and should be more like the Protestant Churches of Europe. Puritans- wanted to purify and improve the Church of England to make it more Protestant-like. Separatists- wanted to separate and break away from the Church of England because they didn’t believe it was possible to change it enough for their liking. Separatists and Puritans are often considered together in history under the title of “Puritans” despite this distinction. Calvinists- believed in predestination. They had a duty to live moral lives and prepare themselves for heaven, but only God knew where they were destined to go after death. They valued hard work, thrift, diligence, and morality (Protestant work ethic). In the 1600s Puritans had to worship secretly because the only legal religion in England was the Anglican Church.

49 Pilgrims Liden, Netherlands: Pilgrimage:James I, and later his son Charles I, began persecuting the Puritans and other dissenting religious groups in the early 1600s. Puritans from Boston and Scrooby, England decided to leave England and live in the City of Liden in the Netherlands so they could practice their faith freely (the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands was an alliance of seven distinct states at the time that had their own local governments and religions, so freedom of religion made sense). Eventually the English transplants saw themselves and their children as becoming too Dutch and decided that a new settlement in America would be worth the risk so that they could remain Englishmen and practice their faith without being bothered. Pilgrimage: Because the Puritans saw their journey as one of intense religious importance, they considered it a pilgrimage (a journey to a holy place) and history has named them the “Pilgrims.” The Pilgrims returned to England briefly and left Southampton Harbor on August 15, 1620 on board two ships: the Mayflower, a cargo vessel with other non-Puritans, and a smaller ship called the Speedwell. After a short time the two ships were forced to stop at Plymouth Harbor because the Speedwell was taking on water and would not be able to make the voyage. On September 15, 1620, 102 passengers boarded the Mayflower and set out for the northernmost border of the Virginia Colony. Along the way, the main beam of the Mayflower broke and the ship nearly sank. It also faced hash winds and ended up too far north, north of the Hudson River at Cape Cod. With the approach of winter, the Pilgrims decided to remain at Cape Cod. At first they faced the hostile Nauset natives on Cape Cod so they continued sailing until they reached the place that appeared ideal to them. Being outside of the boundaries of the Virginia Colony, the Pilgrims held a meeting on the ship and drafted an agreement as to how to govern their new colony; the document was called the Mayflower Compact.

50 Quick Check How did the motivations of the Pilgrims differ from those of the Jamestown settlers? Why were the Pilgrims so upset living in England and then in the Netherlands?

51 Plymouth Plantation On December 21, 1620, the Pilgrims chose a location that contained a high hill overlooking the harbor and called it Plymouth (after the last port in England, from which they left). When the Pilgrims went ashore they encountered a native named Samoset who greeted them in broken English. Before long he sent for a Pawtuxet native named Squanto (who knew English better because he had been captured by the cruel Captain Thomas Hunt, sold into slavery in Spain, escaped to England, and purchased his passage back home). Building a Town- 1621: By January of 1621, the first house was built and served as a hospital. The men continued to build additional houses. By the end of the first winter, only 47 of the 102 original passengers were still alive. Without food, the Pilgrims relied on the local natives for assistance (sometimes stealing native corn seed stores). In the spring, Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to plant in Plymouth’s sandy and salty soil (using dead fish as fertilizer). In the fall, the settlers and local Wampanoag peoples partook in a 3-day harvest celebration that would later become known as the first Thanksgiving (waterfowl, venison, fish, lobster, clams, berries, fruit, pumpkins, and squash were on the menu). When John Carver died in April of 1621, William Bradford became the second governor of Plymouth Colony. Together, with the sachem of the local Wampanoag people, Massasoit, the Pilgrims and natives had a relatively peaceful coexistence. However, when Massasoit died, the peace did not last. The second generation of settlers in New England were not as devoted to peace as the first generation had been. Likewise, the second generation of natives was less interested in peace as they continued to lose their land to the settlers. They also lost many of their people to European diseases. Those that survived were expected to adopt English ways of life. The Pilgrims were intolerant of anyone who worshiped differently than they did or who challenged them politically. Although they had been persecuted in England for those very things, anyone who challenged their religious beliefs or leadership was not welcome in Plymouth Colony.

52 New England Colonies Massachusetts Bay Colony: Rhode Island Colony:In 1630, a large group of Puritans led by Rev. John Winthrop arrived in Boston Harbor with a mission to establish a new religious colony to serve as an example for the rest of the world, as a “City upon a hill.” Massachusetts Bay became the only colony to allow settlers the right to elect the governor. The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay spread to Maine and New Hampshire, founding the New Hampshire Colony in 1622. Massachusetts Bay was not a colony accepting of religious beliefs other than its own: No Catholics, Baptists, or Quakers were allowed. On October 9, 1635, Roger Williams was banished for stating that civil authorities should not be allowed to punish religious crimes and for speaking out against the confiscation of native land. On March 22, 1638, Anne Hutchinson was banished for holding prayer meetings, criticizing certain ministers, and for suggesting that individuals could know God’s will directly. After her banishment, Hutchinson founded Portsmouth, RI. Rhode Island Colony: Banished from Massachusetts, Roger Williams founded Providence Plantation in 1636, and purchased the land directly from the natives. Rhode Island and Providence Plantations adopted a policy of Separation of Church and State and became a colony accepting of various religions; it attracted Baptists, Quakers, and Jews, among others. Connecticut & New Haven Colonies: Puritans from Massachusetts expanded westward in the 1630s in search of new fertile farmland, which they found in the Connecticut River Valley. Rev. Thomas Hooker took a group of parishioners and founded Hartford in 1636. Rev. John Davenport took a wealthy group of parishioners from London to southern Connecticut in 1637 and founded the New Haven Colony. In 1665, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies merged and became simply the Connecticut Colony.

53 Quick Check Why do you believe the Puritans were so unwelcoming of people with different religious or political beliefs given the persecution that they faced in England? What were the differences between the New England Colonies and the Southern Colonies?

54 Problem 8. Mayflower CompactWilliam Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, ed. Samuel Morison, Mayflower Compact (1620). What was the Mayflower Compact and why was it written? Who were the parties to the document? What did the Mayflower Compact say as to how Plymouth Colony would be governed? Was the Mayflower Compact necessary? Explain.

55 Problem 9. City Upon A HillJohn Winthrop, “City upon a Hill” (1630). https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/winthrop.htm Who was the intended audience of Winthrop’s speech? How does Winthrop suggest that the new settlement be governed? Explain the use of Winthrop’s metaphor “A City Upon A Hill.” Ultimately, what type of settlement will Winthrop’s people create?

56 Lesson 7 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the colonial reactions to those who the religious hegemony deemed outsiders to their Puritan beliefs; and Describe the events that led to the Salem Witch Trials and explain how the hysteria in Salem spiraled out of control.

57 Puritan Superstition and ReligionPuritan Paranoia: Puritans were well known for punishing dissenters to their religion, whom they considered to be heretics. They were also extremely superstitious and believed that if anything bad happened it could have been due to magic or witchcraft. Witchcraft- A Worldwide Threat: In the 1600s, Catholics and Protestants in Europe and the Americas believed that witchcraft was real and that witches received their magical powers from entering into a contract with the devil. From the 14th to the 16th centuries, 30,000-40,000 suspected witches were executed. Exodus, Chapter 22: Verse 18 states: “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live,” and so the Bible was used to justify hunting, torturing, and executing witches. Throughout the world, the Malleus Maleficarum was used as a guide for finding and punishing witches. In Massachusetts, Puritans also used a book called Memorable Providences written by Rev. Cotton Mather to find witches in their communities. Religious Devotion: It was expected that all Puritans attended church services on a weekly basis and on required holy days. From farming, to business, to home life, everything that the Puritans did had to be conducted according to the Bible. If they ever strayed from the Bible, they were acting against God. The Puritans believed in the existence of evil and thought that the devil appeared before them and tempted them to act against God. Anything strange or different from the ordinary was questioned as the work of the devil.

58 Witchcraft in Salem Life in Salem: Discovery of Witchcraft:In the late 1600s, about 500 people lived in Salem Village (present-day Danvers), which was a farming village on the edge of the forest, on the outskirts of Salem Town. It was a typical Puritan town that viewed women as inferior to men. They believed that women should be submissive and obedient to men, and that they were inherently weaker than men. In 1692, the minister in Salem Village was a man named Reverend Samuel Parris, who was a man likely to be replaced by another minister very soon as there were many who were not pleased with him. Discovery of Witchcraft: One day, Rev. Parris came home after visiting parishioners and caught his daughter Elizabeth Parris and her cousin Abigail Williams behaving in a way that good Puritan girls never behaved. Rev. Parris soon learned that his slave Tituba, daughter Elizabeth, niece Abigail, and several of the village girls were listening to stories about witchcraft, playing games, and trying to tell the future with magic and voodoo learned from Tituba. Because of the guilt that they felt from their misbehavior, many of the girls began to display some bizarre behaviors and act very strangely. The tight-knit community was at a loss in explaining the convulsive seizures, blasphemous screaming, and trance-like states that afflicted the youngsters. Doctors could not explain the girls’ symptoms and believed that they were the work of Satan and witches. In February, the villagers began fasting and praying for the girls, who were constantly pressured to reveal the source of their afflictions. Eventually, three women were named (all easy targets): Tituba: a slave from Barbados, initially maintained her innocence but then confessed to seeing the devil; Sarah Good: the town beggar, maintained her innocence; and Sarah Osborne: a bed-ridden elderly woman, maintained her innocence. As the girls began to experience attention and fame within the town, more and more people were accused of signing the devil’s book. Those who were accused later were far more surprising targets and included church-going Puritans and those who were well-respected in the community. Before long, literally everyone was a suspect. The girls had all of the power. Anyone who crossed them the wrong way was likely to find themselves accused of witchcraft, their reputations ruined, their property confiscated and sold at auction, and their lives at risk. Hysteria broke out. Anyone who was different or who questioned the girls and the charade was a quick and easy target.

59 Salem Witchcraft TrialsJudges: John Hawthorne and John Corbin. Evidence: evidence that would not typically have been allowed in other types of trials was allowed in witchcraft proceedings: Spectral evidence: evidence that a someone appeared in the form of a specter was allowed (this evidence could only be seen by the witness and not by anyone else)- ghost, bird, cat, etc. Courtroom antics, screaming, pointing, and convulsing were considered strong evidence. The Devil’s Book: 9 people in the village had signed the Devil’s Book according to Tituba (Tituba, Sarah Good, Sarah Osborn, and six others that she could not read). This was evidence that witches were among them in the village but nobody knew who would be accused next! This led to hysteria. From January to September 1692, 19 men and women were accused, tried, and put to death for witchcraft. Bridget Bishop was the first to be tried and convicted of witchcraft. On June 10, 1692, she was hanged on Gallows Hill. The End of the Hysteria: In January, 1693, only after the girls planned to accuse Governor Phips’s wife of witchcraft, he closed the court at Salem and transferred the remaining cases to Superior Court. Spectral evidence was not allowed. 49 of the 52 people awaiting trial or punishment were released because they were held based purely on spectral evidence. In 1697, Rev. Samuel Parris was removed as minister of Salem Village. In 1711, Massachusetts passed a law restoring the rights and good names of those accused of witchcraft. The law granted pounds in restitution to their heirs. In 1957, Massachusetts formally apologized for the events of 1692.

60 Quick Check How did religion play a role in the Salem Witch trials?Why did the teenage girls act the way that they did? What is hysteria and how did it occur in Salem?

61 Problem 10. Trial of Bridget BishopExamination of Bridget Bishop, as Recorded by Samuel Parris & Examination of Bridget Bishop, as Recorded by Ezekiel Cheever (April 19, 1692). What is Bridget Bishop accused of doing to the afflicted girls? Does Bishop confess to anything? How are the afflicted girls influencing the trial? Does religion enter into the courtroom examination of Bishop? When and how? Did Bridget Bishop get a fair trail? Which account is easier to read? Why are both accounts difficult for us to read and understand what is happening? Why are primary sources important to historians? Why not simply read a textbook to find out what happened?

62 Lesson 8 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the efforts that the English made to Christianize the natives and describe the goals of “Praying Towns”; Describe the causes and effects of the Pequot War; and Describe the causes and effects of the King Philip’s War.

63 Pequot War In the 1630s trade and land disputes led to the outbreak of war between the New England Colonists and the natives in what became known as the Pequot War. Causes of the Pequot War: The Puritans accused the Pequots of murdering a white fur trader. The Pequot denied the accusations but the Puritans allied themselves with native enemies of the Pequots: Narraganset; and Mohegan. The War: In July of 1636, the Colonists, Narraganset, and Mohegan peoples attacked the Pequot. In one Pequot Village, the Colonists set fire to the entire village, killing (mostly women and children). This shocked the native allies. On September 21,1638, the fighting ended and peace was re-established, but at a high cost to the natives. Results of the Pequot War: The war virtually eliminated the Pequot from existence but the war methods of the English served as an example of their viciousness to the other native peoples of New England.

64 Praying Indians In 1646 the Massachusetts legislature passed “An Act for the Propagation of the Gospel Amongst the Indians.” It gave Rev. John Eliot financial aid to establish English missionary schools to convert the New England natives to Christianity and teach them English ways. On October 28, 1646, Eliot preached his first sermon to the natives in their Massachusett language in the wigwam of Waban the first convert in Nonantum (present-day Newton). In 1663, Eliot translated the Bible into the Massachusett language. By 1675, 20% of the New England natives lived in Praying Towns. Praying Towns: Newton, Littleton, Chelmsford, Grafton, Marlborough, Hopkinton, Canton, Uxbridge, Natick, Deer Island, Martha’s Vineyard, and Woodstock CT. Many people criticized the Praying Towns because they argued that acculturation was imposed on the natives: Christianity; Clothing; Manners and customs; Gender roles; Farming methods (women forced into the home and no longer allowed to farm); Literacy; and Property ownership.

65 King Philip’s War King Philip’s War was a major uprising of New England native peoples against English settlements from It was the deadliest war in the history of European settlement of North America in proportion to the population. Cause of King Philip’s War: Metacomet (second son of Massasoit whose English name was King Philip) became the Sachem of the Pokanoket peoples and Grand Sachem of the Wampanoag Confederacy in 1662 after the death of his older brother Wamsutta (first son of Massasoit who was sachem after Massasoit died in 1661 and was called Alexander by the English). After the death of his father and mysterious death of his brother, Metacomet met with leaders of several Algonquian groups (probably over land deals with the English). A “Praying Indian” John Sassamon told the governor of the Plymouth Colony that Metacomet was gathering native allies for an attack against the English Colonists in multiple settlements. Metacomet went to court and the Colonial officials admitted that they didn’t have any evidence but if Metacomet was planning an attack, then the Colonists would confiscate Wampanoag land and guns from them. Shortly after the trial Sassamon’s dead body was found in a frozen pond. Plymouth officials investigated the incident. They then arrested three natives based on the testimony of several other natives that said that the three were responsible for the murder of Sassamon. A trial was held and the three were executed on June 8, 1675. The War: June 20, Raid at Swansea; August Siege of Brookfield; September 12, Battle of Bloody Brook; November 2, The Great Swamp Fight; February Lancaster Raid; March 12, Plymouth Plantation Campaign; April 21, Attack at Sudbury; & May 8, Battle at Turner’s Falls. The Results of the King Philip’s War On August 12, 1676, Metacomet was shot and killed by a native named John Alderman at Mount Hope in Bristol, Rhode Island. His body was beheaded, drawn, and quartered and his head was on display at Plymouth for the next 20 years. Alderman was given Metacomet’s right hand as a reward. Natives destroyed 12 towns and killed over 1,000 Colonists. The tide of the war changed in favor of the Colonists in 1676 because the natives ran out of ammunition. The defeated native groups lost much of their remaining land in New England. By 1700, the 92,000 Colonists in New England outnumbered the mere 9,000 natives still living there.

66 Quick Check How was the second generation of English settlers different from the first? Were the Praying Towns a success or a failure? What tensions existed between the English colonists and the Native Americans in New England in the late 1600s?

67 Problem 11. the Capture of Mary RowlandsonNarrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson By Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1675). Full Version: How did the Natives overtake Mary Rowlandson’s family? What tactics did they use? What role did religion play in her life? What evidence from her narrative can you provide to support your conclusion? Did Mary Rowlandson survive her captivity? How do you know? How do you suppose she had the will to survive given her fearfulness of what might happen to her?

68 Lesson 9 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the Dutch and Swedish Colonies in North America; Explain how the Middle Colonies were founded and for what purposes; Describe the different waves of immigrants to North America; Describe the role of slavery in the different regions; Explain how the Transatlantic Slave Trade worked, including the Middle Passage; Describe the Triangle Trade and its different parts; and List the relatively few slave revolts that occurred in the colonial period.

69 New Netherlands Located between the English Chesapeake Colonies and New England, Dutch and Swedish trading companies began to arrive in the early 1600s. The Dutch West India Company: In 1609, the Dutch West India Company arrived to establish trade in America and established New Netherlands. The government of New Netherlands consisted of a governor and advisory council, all of whom were appointed by the Company; there was no elected assembly. New Netherlands tolerated various religious groups including Jews and made no attempts to convert natives to Christianity. Fort Orange (Albany) was founded in 1624 and New Amsterdam (Manhattan or New York City) was founded in 1626. The Dutch population in America remained low up to the 1660s. The English became bitter trade rivals with the Dutch thereafter and resented their presence in North America. In 1664, the English navy forced the Dutch Governor Peter Stuyvesant to surrender New Netherlands and the colony transferred to the English and was re-named New York (after the Duke of York).

70 New Sweden Located in present-day Delaware, the Swedes also looked to establish a trading colony in North America in the early 1600s. New Sweden Company: In 1638, the Swedish New Sweden Company established a colony in Delaware and built Fort Christina (Wilmington). The economy of the Swedish Colony focused on farming grain and on the fur trade with natives. Many of the settlers from the company were actually from Finland and introduced the log cabin to North America. At its largest, New Sweden extended into present-day Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. In 1655, after a violent confrontation with the Dutch, the Dutch took over the Colony of New Sweden and the colony was absorbed into New Netherlands. In 1664, when the English forced the Dutch out of New Netherlands, the English took over all of the land formerly known as New Sweden as well.

71 Other Middle Colonies New Jersey PennsylvaniaWhen the English took over New Netherlands in 1664, the Duke of York removed a portion of the Colony and named it New Jersey (it had 2 sections). East New Jersey- settled by English Puritans and Scots. West New Jersey- settled by English Quakers. Pennsylvania The Colony of Pennsylvania began as repayment of a debt that King Charles II owed to aristocrat William Penn. Instead of paying him money, he gave Penn a colony. William Penn was a Quaker and he was despised by his fellow gentlemen in England. The colony became a Quaker refuge and in 1682 Penn arrived with 2,000 colonists (mostly Quakers). The fertility of the land was also a major “pull factor” that attracted 18,000 settlers by 1700. Quakers- type of Protestant religion that believed: That each person should follow his “inner light” to understand the Bible and God; That women and men should be equal; and That war was wrong (pacifism). Middle Colonies were generally welcoming to diverse people and diverse religious beliefs.

72 Quick Check Were the Dutch and Swedish Colonies in North America more similar to the English, French, or Spanish? Explain.

73 Immigrants to the ColoniesEarly Immigration (1600s): In the 1600s, 90% of immigrants to the American Colonies were from England. Half of the early immigrants were indentured servants (worked 4-7 years to pay off their initial voyage to America). Immigration after 1660 from England slowed because political, religious, and economic conditions in England stabilized. Immigration in the 1700s: Scottish Immigrants came in three waves: From the Scottish Lowlands; From the Scottish Highlands; and From Ulster (Northern Ireland). The Ulster immigrants were Protestants known as the Scots-Irish (or Scotch-Irish) and many moved to the Piedmont (back country) areas of Virginia and Pennsylvania. German Immigrants: came mainly from the Rhine River Valley and northern Switzerland. The German immigrants had a number of “push factors” such as: war, taxes, religious persecution, and political instability. Labor shifts in America- initially indentured servants were used, but eventually, when English immigration slowed, planters turned to African slavery. Early slavery was just like indentured servitude. By 1650, race-based slavery was seen as a permanent condition.

74 Slave Trade British Slaves: African Slave Trade:During the 1700s, the British Colonies (Thirteen Colonies, Canada, and Caribbean) imported 1,500,000 African slaves. 250,000 of whom were sent to the Thirteen Colonies. African Slave Trade: African slaves were purchased by Europeans in African ports from African people (they were captured by other Africans); The Middle Passage (journey by ship from Africa to America) was part of the Triangle Trade. Triangle Trade: Europeans sailed to Africa buying slaves in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe and rum from the Americas; From Africa, they sailed to the Americas selling the slaves in exchange for American goods, rum, and raw materials; From the Americas, they sailed to Europe selling the American goods and raw materials from which they could make manufactured products; and The cycle started all over again. 10% of all slaves died in the Middle Passage and others caught diseases, were malnourished, or psychologically distraught.

75 Slavery in America Slavery’s Challenges: Regional Differences:Slavery varied greatly by location, type of labor, and individual slave master. Most slaves faced new lands, new languages, new religions, and no family or friends from home. Often the only thing that bonded slaves who were forced to work together was the color of their skin. Through American slavery, a new slave culture emerged, which blended the music, customs, food, and religion of Africa, the Caribbean, and America. Regional Differences: Societies With Slavery: New England & the Middle Colonies had limited numbers of slaves (and the economy and society would have functioned without them). Most were employed as household slaves, dock workers, or farm hands. Slave Societies: Chesapeake & the Deep South that had large numbers of slaves (and the economy and social structure depended upon slavery). Most of the slaves in the Chesapeake raised labor-intensive tobacco, rice, indigo, and sugar (slaves were 40% of the population). Most of the slaves in the Deep South were plantation slaves who worked long hours in the fields growing cash crops such as rice, sugar, & cotton (cotton by 1800). Slave accommodations in slave cabins were minimal. They also had to raise their own food crops/animals, cook, make clothing, and work for their masters on top of that for 12 hours per day and 6 days per week. Most slaves adopted Christianity but it was often a blending of Christianity and their traditional beliefs. Slave Revolts were rare. The few successful slave revolts that occurred included: Stono Rebellion (1739); New York City Conspiracy (1741); Gabriel’s Conspiracy (1800); German Coast Uprising (1811); and Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831). Methods of resistance included: breaking tools, pretending to be sick, or running away. Slaves who ran away often hid in native villages, Florida, or in maroon communities (communities of slaves living secretly in swamps or forests).

76 Quick Check Who was to blame for African slavery? Who was to blame for race-based slavery?

77 Problem 12. The Confession of Nat turnerThomas R. Gray, The Confessions of Nat Turner, 1831 Why did Nat Turner plan and execute his revolt? What were the most shocking parts of the confession? Was there any chance that he would be successful in his revolt? What do you suppose were the consequences for Nat and those who took up arms and rebelled with him? What do you suppose were the consequences of Nat Turner’s Revolt for the innocent slaves in Southampton, throughout Virginia, and across America after the revolt? Who was Thomas R. Gray?

78 Lesson 10 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the theory of mercantilism as it applied to the Colonies; Explain the purpose of the Navigation Acts and list their general requirements; Describe the Colonial economy in each of the different regions; Describe the social differences in each of the different regions; Describe the foundations of English freedoms and government, and how those ideals transferred to the Colonies; Explain the philosophical beliefs of the Enlightenment, the Scientific Revolution, and Natural Law Theory; and Explain how the Second Great Awakening changed religion in the Colonies and inspired common people to question authority.

79 Colonial American EconomyMercantilism: Mercantilism was an economic theory that a nation can build wealth and power by developing its industries and exporting manufactured goods in exchange for gold and silver. Colonies exist for the sole economic benefit of the mother country. It was perfect for England, where they had plenty of labor but few natural resources. The Colonies would supply England with natural resources and then become customers for English finished products. Navigation Acts: Series of laws passed by Parliament (English legislative body) to control trade in the Colonies. Act of 1651: Goods had to be shipped on English ships, with English crews, and English captains. Colonies had to buy their goods from England or another English colony. Act of 1660: Valuable goods like tobacco, indigo, sugar, or cotton could only be shipped to England. Staple Act of 1663: Colonies had to buy any foreign products through England (and pay taxes) and could not deal directly on their own. Violations of the Navigation Acts carried stiff penalties like loss of ship, loss of cargo, or heavy fines. Success of the Navigation Acts: England’s economy improved because it received the natural resources it needed and it also had consumers ready to purchase finished goods. However, they had access to goods they might not otherwise have. The Colonists had to pay more for English goods, transportation, and taxes. The few goods that could not be homemade were expensive due to the laws.

80 regional Economic DifferencesColonial Economy (1700): Most Colonists throughout the Colonies were farmers who lived near the coast. New England: Small subsistence farms (grew only enough for family consumption), where they grew wheat, rye, corn, and potatoes for their own use (similar to England). Exported lumber and fish (key port of Boston). Middle Colonies: With a better climate and soil conditions, medium-sized farms were possible. These farms grew more than enough for family consumption and exported the surplus (excellent wheat crop) (key ports of New York City and Philadelphia). Southern Colonies: With the best climate and soil conditions, large plantation farms grew cash crops for export such as tobacco, rice, sugar, indigo, and cotton by 1800 (key port of Charleston). Chesapeake- tobacco; North Carolina- cattle and lumber; and South Carolina & Georgia- rice and indigo.

81 regional Social DifferencesPopulation: New England- middle class families (which led to rapid population growth); Chesapeake & South- mostly single men (led to slow population growth). Slaves: mostly the South. Cultural, Ethnic Diversity, and Religious Tolerance- Middle Colonies. Life Expectancy: New England- age 70. Chesapeake- age 45. Women In all colonies, most women were legally restricted from owning land, voting, serving on juries, or running for office. Primogeniture laws- all property owned by women became property of their husbands upon marriage. Towns: New England- people were concentrated into towns in order to support the church and schools. In the mid-1600s, Massachusetts passed a law requiring publicly funded schools so that all children could learn to read the Bible. South- people were spread out greater distances from one another on large farms. The South had few schools and children were less likely to learn to read and write. Colonial Universities (most graduates became ministers): Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1636); College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia (1693); and Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut (1700).

82 Quick Check How did the economy in the New England, Middle, and Southern Colonies compare and contrast to one another? How was farming different in each of the different colonial regions? In what other ways was life different in each of the three colonial regions?

83 Government The English government was a Constitutional Monarchy dating back to the Magna Carta in 1215, which granted key rights to the people and limited the power of the king. James II: After the Catholic King James II took the throne in 1685, he revoked charters and consolidated the colonies in America. James eliminated self-government and appointed royal governors and councils to rule. In 1689, King James II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution and replaced by Protestants, William & Mary. William & Mary: Upon taking power, King William and Queen Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, protecting individual rights of the people. Right to Habeas Corpus (charged with a crime after you are arrested); No standing army in times of peace; and Right to due process (to go through the legal system). The Glorious Revolution spilled over into the Colonies and Colonists arrested government officials that were appointed by James II, claiming loyalty to the new monarchs. England allowed local self-government in the Colonies once again but expected officials to enforce the Navigation Acts and to help in wars that England fought against France & Spain. Salutary Neglect: Unfortunately for England, the Navigation Acts and principles of Mercantilism were rarely enforced and the Colonists traded freely or smuggled for nearly 100 years. They also grew accustomed to broad governmental powers to govern themselves without much interference from England. England thereby committed salutary neglect.

84 Enlightenment ThinkingThe Enlightenment was an eighteenth century movement during which European philosophers believed that society’s problems could be solved by reason and science. It also challenged old ways of thinking about science, religion, and government. Scientific Revolution: Scientists used observation and experimentation to learn about the physical world. It also challenged the existing power of religion to explain the natural world. Natural Laws: Enlightenment philosophers looked for natural laws that could be applied to government, society, and economics. John Locke challenged the unlimited power of kings and believed that people had natural rights that were derived from God (and thereby could not be taken away). The idea of natural laws also challenged the authority of the Church as the intermediary between the people and God. All together- kings and religion lost power as the result of Enlightenment thinking.

85 Great Awakening The Great Awakening: New Denominations:A religious movement in the British Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s, which was heavily inspired by evangelical preachers who traveled from town to town giving emotional sermons that greatly touched listeners. Sermons hoped to inspire listeners to repent their sins, to accept divine grace, and to find their own salvation. Famous preachers, Jonathan Edwards & George Whitefield, traveled across the Colonies in holding revivals and giving moving sermons that inspired the people of America in profound religious ways. New Denominations: Many new churches branched off of existing ones and new denominations were created. New acceptance and tolerance for religious diversity began. Challenging Authority: The idea that the common person could enjoy the same relationship with God as ministers caused people to believe that the common person should also have similar legal and political rights as the elite in society. The idea of questioning those in authority led to individualism and a push for equality in society.

86 Quick Check How did the Enlightenment and Great Awakening change thinking in Colonial America?

87 Problem 13. “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”Johnathan Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1739). Glsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy4yMTo0Ny53amVv Metaphorically, to whom is Edwards referring when he speaks about the Israelites at the start of his Sermon? If God is so angry with man, how does Edwards explain His restraint? Why does Edwards use such strong language throughout his Sermon? What is Edwards’s ultimate message?

88 Lesson 11 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how Britain and France were frequent rivals in Europe and America; Explain how conflict over land in the Ohio Country led to war with France and its native allies; Describe the role of natives in the French & Indian War; Explain how the war started, how the tides of war changed, and the results of the Treaty of Paris; Explain why Pontiac’s War occurred and how tensions mounted between British settlers in the frontier; Summarize the Proclamation of 1763 and its purpose; and Explain the Albany Plan of Union and why it failed.

89 Competition for North AmericaIn 1750: British territory extended to the Appalachian Mountains (1.5 million). French territory extended from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains but it was sparsely populated (70,000). Britain vs. France: From Britain and France fought a series of wars in Europe and tensions again escalated as Britain wanted to eventually push France out of North America. Native Americans traded and peacefully coexisted with the French because they were less inclined to take native lands than the British. Ohio Country: The Ohio Country was disputed land south of the Great Lakes in the Ohio River Valley. Both Britain and France claimed the land. France began building forts to prevent against British expansion into the Ohio Country. The French built Fort Duquesne in western Pennsylvania, greatly angering the British Governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, who ordered George Washington and his Virginia militia to evict the French in 1753. After failing the first time, Washington was sent a second time to evict the French. In the process, he built Fort Necessity in order to successfully counter the French at Fort Duquesne.

90 Seven Years War IgnitesThe French & Indian War began in 1754 as the North American branch of the larger Seven Years War (between France and Britain in Europe). Early in the war, Prime Minister William Pitt promised the Colonists that they would not have to pay the expense of the war. Assassination: On May 28, 1754, Washington marched a small detachment from Fort Necessity to a French encampment and ambushed the sleeping French scouting soldiers. They took 21 prisoners of war, including the French military officer, Jumonville. Washington’s native ally, Tanacharison, called the “Half King,” approached Jumonville, struck him in the head with a tomahawk, & killed him. While the British won the battle that day, they ultimately lost the Battle of Fort Necessity in July In his surrender documents, Washington acknowledged the assassination of Jumonville (which he claimed was translated to him as “the loss of” or “the death of” and not “the assassination of”). This fateful moment started the beginning of the French & Indian War and the larger Seven Years War. Early British Losses: The British lost nearly every engagement early in the war. The British Commander General Edward Braddock was ambushed and killed on his way to Fort Duquesne in 1755. In , the French, under the command of General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm destroyed British forts along Lake Ontario and Lake George (Fort Oswego, Fort Ticonderoga, & Fort William Henry). Natives allied with the French raided British settlements in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Tide of the War Changes: In 1758, as French supplies were cut off by the British and many natives deserted, the British began to win key battles along the St. Lawrence River, and in Quebec, Montreal, and Fort Duquesne (re-named Pittsburgh). 1763 Treaty of Paris: Although fighting in America essentially ended with the 1760 British defeat of Montreal, the treaty that ended the Seven Years War was signed in 1763. The British kept Canada, the Great Lakes Region, the Ohio River Valley, and Florida and all of the land up to the Mississippi River.

91 Pontiac’s Rebellion Pontiac’s Rebellion: Proclamation of 1763:The British victory in the French & Indian War opened up the frontier (and native lands) for British settlers; starting in 1763, natives began fighting over the loss of their lands in the Ohio River Valley & Great Lakes. Mississauga, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Ojibwa, Wyandot, Miami, Kickapoo, Mascouten, Delaware, Shawnee, and Seneca natives took up arms against British forts and settlers. Native raids on British settlements were frequent in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland. The rebellion was named after Pontiac, the chief who led the attack against Detroit. In the end, the natives ran out of gunpowder and ammunition and they failed to defeat the British at several key forts: Detroit, Niagara, and Pitt. Proclamation of 1763: Despite the British victory in the French & Indian War and against the natives in Pontiac’s Rebellion, the British thought it would be best to keep settlers out of native territories for their own safety and security. “And whereas it is just and reasonable, and essential to our Interest, and to the security of our Colonies,…the several Nations or Tribes of Indians with whom We are connected, and who live under our Protection, should not be molested or disturbed in the Possession of such Parts of our Dominions and Territories…as are reserved to them, or any of them, as their Hunting Grounds.” Colonists disregarded the Proclamation and settled the frontier anyways and the Proclamation angered them. War debt, which amounted to 70 million pounds doubled the national debt to 140 million pounds. It also angered the Colonists as Parliament planned to begin taxation of the Colonies to pay for the war, despite William Pitt’s promise. Albany Plan of Union- in 1754 Benjamin Franklin proposed to set up a Congress of the Colonies to work together in war and peace. Ultimately, the plan failed because none of the colonies wishes to give up its own autonomy, nor did Britain like the idea of giving more authority to a government in the Colonies that might eventually challenge Britain’s power.

92 Quick Check How did the French and Indian War impact the relationship between Britain and its American Colonies? How did the French and Indian War impact the relationship between the British Colonists and Native Americans?

93 Problem 14. Capitulation of George WashingtonGeorge Washington, Articles of Capitulation, July 3, 1754. https://www.nps.gov/fone/learn/historyculture/capitulation.htm Why did George Washington give this statement? For what has he taken responsibility? Does history fault Washington for this failure?

94 Lesson 12 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the structure of the British and Colonial governments; List and describe the new laws passed by Parliament that taxed the Colonies; Describe how the Colonists protested against the new laws; Explain the British response to those protests; Describe the Boston Massacre; Describe the Boston Tea Party; Explain the British response to the Boston Tea Party; and Explain why the First Continental Congress met and what it resolved to do.

95 British & Colonial GovernmentsBritish Government (three branches): 1. Executive Branch- Monarch. 2. Legislative Branch Upper House- House of Lords (nobles with inherited power). 3. Legislative Branch Lower House- House of Commons (wealthy commoners who were elected). Constitution- a collection of laws and traditions accumulated over centuries (unwritten). Colonial Governments (three branches (except for Pennsylvania)): 1. Executive Branch- Governor (appointed by the king) (only Connecticut and Rhode Island elected the governor). 2. Legislative Branch Upper House- Council (members were appointed and served for life). 3. Legislative Branch Lower House- Elected Assembly (wealthy colonists who were elected). Constitution- official legal document (written). Wealthy elite in Britain and the Colonies had all of the power- average people had little say. Royal governors were paid by colonial assemblies (so most tried to get along), but with Britain’s newly planned taxes, governors would soon be paid by the crown to ensure loyalty. Salutary Neglect- while Britain technically always controlled the colonial governments, the Colonies grew accustomed to local self-government. Protests began when Parliament, over 3,000 miles away, began to tax them instead of their own elected assemblies. Colonists argued that this violated the principle of “consent of the governed.”

96 New Laws & Taxes Cause ConflictSalutary Neglect also occurred with regards to trade and mercantilism. Many previous trade laws under the Navigation Acts had not been enforced and colonial merchants (like John Hancock) grew rich from free trade, smuggling, and failing to pay the required taxes. New Laws & Taxes: 1764 Sugar Act- existing law (newly enforced) which taxed imported molasses into the Colonies. 1765 Quartering Act- required Colonists to house and supply British troops stationed in the Colonies. 1765 Stamp Act- new tax on nearly all printed materials in the Colonies, including newspapers, books, playing cards, court documents, contracts, and land deeds. First direct tax on the Colonies by Parliament, which led to protests. Protest of the Stamp Act centered on the argument that Parliament could not tax the Colonies because they did not send representatives to Parliament, thereby violating the principle of “consent of the governed.” The British responded that the Colonists were “virtually represented” because Parliament considered the good of all British subjects when it passed laws. In fact, most British subjects were not represented (only 3% were directly represented by voting for representatives in Parliament).

97 Protest to British TaxationThree Types of Protest: intellectual protests, economic boycotts, and violent intimidation. Ultimately, they forced Britain to back down. Intellectual Protests (Enlightenment philosophy): John Locke argued that people have natural rights that are derived from God, such as life, liberty, and property. He also believed that government exists only for the good of the people. Patrick Henry who helped write the Virginia Resolves, argued that only colonial assemblies could directly tax the people. Economic Boycotts: Nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October, 1765 and agreed to boycott British goods in order to force Britain to back down on its taxation. Non-Importation Agreements and Boycotts hurt British businesses. Colonists turned to the women to produce products that they boycotted from Britain like cloth (“Daughters of Liberty”). Violent Intimidation: Samuel Adams organized the “Sons of Liberty” to violently oppose British taxes and policies and to assault British officials enforcing the laws and collecting the taxes. Assaults, tar-and-feathering, arson, burning effigies, mob violence, property damage, intimidation, & threats. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but Parliament also passed the Declaratory Act- stating that Parliament could tax the Colonies whenever it pleased. 1767 Townshend Acts- were indirect taxes on everyday items imported into the Colonies like glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea. Despite the indirect nature of the taxes- Colonists again protested. Massachusetts published a circular denouncing the Townshend Acts, and in response, the governor dissolved the legislature. In 1768, John Hancock’s ship, the Liberty, was seized for smuggling. Riots raged in Massachusetts and the governor requested additional troops. 4,000 additional troops arrived in Boston, a town of 16,000 inhabitants. The new troops were rude, obnoxious, and competed with Colonists for part-time jobs. On March 5, 1770, violence spilled over onto the streets of Boston at the Boston Massacre.

98 Quick Check What was the principle of “consent of the governed”? How could Britain counter the argument that this principle was violated by British taxation? What types of protests were used by the Colonists? Which were the most successful and why?

99 Boston Massacre Conflict in Boston followed an altercation between dock workers and soldiers at Gray’s Ropewalks on March 4, 1770. On March 5, 1770, a British guard, Private Hugh Wight, stationed at the Custom’s House on King Street (now State Street) in Boston assaulted a wigmaker’s apprentice named Edward Garrick. Soon a small group of Colonists assembled near the Custom’s House. The crowd began shouting at and harassing the British sentry. Soon the fire bells sounded and the crowd grew larger, louder, and more hostile, and started throwing snow and ice at Wight. A small group of British soldiers under Captain Thomas Preston came to his aid. The crowd began taunting them all and Preston ordered a crowd of about 300 to disperse, but it refused. Among the chaos an object struck Private Hugh Montgomery and his weapon fired into the crowd. Soon several gunshots rang out, one after another. British soldiers had fired on an unarmed crowd. A runaway slave named Crispus Attucks (from Framingham) was hit and died instantly. In total, 11 civilians were struck by British fire (3 died instantly and 2 later died of their injuries). Preston and his men were tried for murder but after being defended by Defense Attorney John Adams, Preston was acquitted. Two of his men were convicted of manslaughter but pled “Benefit of the Clergy” and had their thumbs branded instead of being executed. A silversmith named Paul Revere made the famous engraving called The Bloody Massacre. The Sons of Liberty and printers throughout the Colonies soon spread the news and propaganda from Boston.

100 Boston Tea Party In 1770, Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts but kept a tax on tea in place. 1773 Tea Act- actually lowered the existing tax on tea and aimed to help the struggling British East India Company (giving them an exclusive license (monopoly) to sell its 18 million pounds of excess tea in the Colonies at a discount). The East India Company tea was even less expensive than smuggled tea. The Boston Tea Party: December 16, 1773, thousands of Colonists met at the Old South Meetinghouse to hear Samuel Adams speak against the Royal Governor in Massachusetts, who closed Boston Harbor until the tea was unloaded. At the end of his speech, Samuel Adams announced “there is nothing more we can do to save the country,” which was a signal for approximately 50 Colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians to march to the harbor and board three docked tea ships. The men opened the crates and dumped 90,000 pounds of tea into the harbor. Thereafter, the Sons of Liberty harassed and threatened officials of the East India Company and British Tea Agents throughout the Colonies. In early 1774, the British responded with the Coercive Acts (known as Intolerable Acts in the Colonies): 1. Boston Port Act (closed the Port of Boston); 2. Massachusetts Government Act (took away the right to elect government officials and limited local Town Meetings); 3. Administration of Justice Act (trials of royal officials could be moved out of Boston (even to England) to ensure a fair trial); and 4. Second Quartering Act (expanded the prior act to allow housing in private homes).

101 First Continental CongressIn 1774, at the same time that Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, it also passed the Quebec Act, which expanded the southern border of the Province of Quebec and gave Catholics the right to practice their religion freely. The First Continental Congress: Meeting held in Philadelphia in 1774 and attended by 12 of the 13 Colonies (not Georgia). Meeting was called to discuss how to respond to the British following the Coercive Acts. The only thing agreed upon was a non-importation agreement (boycott on British imports). The delegates decided to establish local committees of correspondence and enforce the boycotts and then to meet again in one year to assess their progress.

102 Quick Check Why was the Boston Massacre called the “Bloody Massacre” or the “Boston Massacre”? How did the event change feelings towards Britain in the Colonies? How did the British react to the Boston Tea Party? Was the British reaction successful?

103 Lesson 13 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how the American Revolution began at Lexington & Concord; Discuss the early battles of the Revolution in Massachusetts at Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights; Explain why the Second Continental Congress was called to session and the issues that it faced; Explain how Congress created a Continental Army and put George Washington in command; Discuss the challenges Washington faced in terms of financing, training, and organizing the troops; Discuss the impact of Thomas Paine’s book Common Sense; and Explain the significance of the Declaration of Independence.

104 Lexington Early Warning System: Lexington Green:On April 18, 1775, British Commander in the American Colonies, General Thomas Gage, received orders to march to Concord, Massachusetts to confiscate a mass of ammunition and to capture rebel leaders, including: Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who were hiding there. Men such as Dr. Joseph Warren, William Dawes, Paul Revere, and Dr. Samuel Prescott were part of an early warning system made up of hundreds of Patriots to alert colonial leaders and militias of British activity. That night, word was spread to Hancock and Adams that the “Redcoats Are Out!” or the “Regulars Are Out!” The militia in Lexington was capable of assembling within a few minutes of notification, and therefore, became known as the minutemen. Lexington Green: By 1:00 a.m. on April 19, 1775, 130 civilians gathered on Lexington Green to face off against the British. By 2:00 a.m. there was no sign of the Redcoats, so Captain John Parker’s Lexington militia waited in a nearby tavern. At 4:30 a.m. they heard the British drums and quickly assembled on Lexington Green. There, in the early morning hours, they faced off against 700 British soldiers under Lt. Col. Francis Smith. Each side stood firm, taking aim at one another, though neither seemed eager to fight. Then suddenly, a gunshot rang out. It was “the shot heard ‘round the world.” To this day, nobody knows who fired the fateful shot that began the American Revolution. In less than 2 minutes, 8 colonists were dead and 10 were wounded. The Patriots retreated and the British continued their march towards Concord. It took 6 weeks for the word to reach London, but when it did, it was clear that the war had begun.

105 Concord The March to Concord: Old North Bridge & Retreat to Boston:All along the march from Lexington to Concord, Patriot militia shot at the British from behind trees and stonewalls. Militia from as far as Western Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire fled to Boston to help. When the British finally arrived in Concord, they found that the storehouses had been emptied before they arrived. Old North Bridge & Retreat to Boston: A skirmish broke out at Old North Bridge near Concord, where 400 Patriots gathered to defend the bridge against the British advance. Patriot militia fired on the redcoats all along their 16-mile march back to Boston. In the end, out of 700 men, the British recorded (273 casualties): 73 dead; 174 wounded; and 26 missing. The Patriots recorded (94 casualties): 49 dead; 40 wounded; and 5 missing. Loyalists- those who remained loyal to the King of Great Britain despite the Patriot movement in the Colonies. Loyalists were targeted and abused by Patriots. Property was burned, vandalized, and looted. Most loyalists opposed British taxation but believed that they were bound to follow the laws of Great Britain and that resistance would only lead to war that they were certain to lose. Early in the war: 1/3 were Patriots, 1/3 were Loyalists, and 1/3 were Neutral and wanted to be left alone. Many Native Americans sided with the British because the British promised not to take more of their lands. Many, like John Adams, were Patriots. He said, “Swim or sink, live or die, survive or perish with my country- that is my unalterable determination.”

106 Quick Check Was there any turning back after the Battles of Lexington & Concord? Who started the American Revolutionary War? Explain.

107 Fort Ticonderoga Benedict Arnold:One officer who came to help in Massachusetts was a Connecticut man named Benedict Arnold. He had served in the French & Indian War for the British. After the war became wealthy as a merchant, but he also became a bitter and arrogant man. Arnold wanted to gain fame and glory for himself as a war hero for the Patriots. Arnold convinced the Massachusetts officials to send him on a mission to capture munitions at Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York. Green Mountain Boys & Fort Ticonderoga: 30-miles from Fort Ticonderoga, Benedict Arnold ran into Ethan Allen (another officer from Connecticut), who had been fighting a 5-year civil war between his Green Mountain Boys from Vermont and New York settlers over land in present-day Vermont. Allen was on his own separate mission to Fort Ticonderoga with his 83 Green Mountain Boys. Assuming that he would command the joint mission, Arnold gave Allen his orders from Massachusetts, but the Green Mountain Boys refused to follow Arnold. As a result, Allen took control and Arnold became second in command. On May 10, 1775, the joint team overtook the 50 sleeping redcoats at Fort Ticonderoga without firing a shot and controlled the artillery of the fort. Ethan Allen wrote back about the takeover and never once mentioned Arnold, thus deeply wounding and disrespecting Arnold’s honor. Colonial Militias Unite in Boston: Militia from around the Colonies began to converge on Boston to help their fellow Colonists against the British. At the same time, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to discuss war and the formation of a Continental Army. The rag tag group that assembled in Boston were hardly a military force. They were mostly farmers, not trained soldiers. They had little military experience and were poorly supplied but their mission to support Boston was one of honor and duty.

108 Battle of Bunker Hill The British Triumvirate of Reputation:Outraged with the rebellion and what had happened at Lexington & Concord, Great Britain removed General Gage from command and replaced him with three of the best and brightest generals in the British Empire: General Henry Clinton- American-born, competent, but socially awkward. General John Burgoyne- conceited and ambitious. General William Howe- experienced officer who fought alongside the Colonists in the French & Indian War. Ironically, he fundamentally disagreed with war against the Colonists. Battle of Bunker Hill: Since Lexington & Concord, the Colonists had surrounded and begun a siege of Boston. On June 16, 1775 Patriot spies learned that the British planned to take the high ground on Bunker Hill (overlooking Boston). All night the Colonial militia under Col. William Prescott dug in on Bunker Hill and nearby Breed’s Hill, preparing trenches and defenses to protect against a British attack. In the morning, British General William Howe ordered his men to affix their bayonets and to charge up the hill. The British climbed and retreated twice as the Colonial militia held them off. On the third time, the Patriots ran out of ammunition. The British took Breed’s Hill and won the battle, but at a very high cost in casualties. The Results: British: 1,000 out of 2,300 were dead or wounded. Patriots: 271 out of 1,600 were dead or wounded. Patriots gained a great deal of confidence from the battle despite their loss.

109 The Second Continental CongressWith conflict in Massachusetts, the Second Continental Congress was called to meet in Philadelphia at Independence Hall. To date, Congress had not allowed any offensive action against the British, but the rebellion had forced them to discuss war. Congress created a Continental Army and unanimously made George Washington its Commander. Being a wealthy Virginian planter (a non-New Englander) and an officer made him the obvious choice to unite all of the Colonies. Continental Army: In the summer of 1775, Washington headed for Cambridge, Massachusetts. What he found when he arrived was a rag tag force of untrained militia, filthy, and poorly equipped. Washington had to begin from scratch: administrative tasks and training. Washington called for more guns and ammunition but his requests were not met. To make matters worse, most men were enlisted for 1-year, so as soon as they were well-trained, their time in the army was up. Olive Branch Petition In the days following the Battle of Bunker Hill the Congress decided to send one more offer of peace to King George, III, which became known as the Olive Branch Petition. The Petition called for American autonomy within the British Empire. Because the message would take months to get to Britain and back, Washington began to prepare for full war despite the Petition. On October 26, 1775, King George, III flatly rejected the Olive Branch Petition and called for a military solution. The king also sent thousands of additional troops to Boston to reinforce General William Howe who became the commander of the British forces in the Colonies after Gage returned to England.

110 Quick Check What were the early problems with Colonial militias and the Continental Army?

111 Dorchester Heights Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation: Dorchester HeightsThe Southern delegates of the Congress grew concerned with one group of soldiers- blacks. They urged Washington not to arm blacks. In the end Washington agreed despite having Billy Lee, his personal slave and friend, beside him everywhere he went. As the Continental Congress outlawed black soldiers- the British welcomed them and the Royal Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, issued a proclamation that any blacks that joined the British army would gain their freedom after the war. Thousands of slaves fled from their masters and headed to the British lines (30,000 in Virginia). Dorchester Heights The winter of 1775 was crippling to the Patriots who had little food, money, munitions, or clothing. On January 25, 1776, Henry Knox returned to Cambridge with cannons and supplies from Fort Ticonderoga. Impressed, Washington made Knox the Commander of Artillery. With the cannons from Ticonderoga, Washington decided to take the high ground above Boston at Dorchester Heights. On March 4, 1776, as a decoy he ordered his men to fire on the British from Cobble Hill, Lechmere, and Roxbury while he ordered his men to haul Ticonderoga’s cannons up Dorchester Heights. On March 5, 1776, (the 6th anniversary of the Boston Massacre) the British awoke to 20 cannons aimed at them- the decision was made by the British to evacuate Boston. By March 17, 1776, 120 ships with 9,000 redcoats and 2,000 loyalists left Boston.

112 Empire Strikes Back & Common SenseThe Empire Strikes Back: In April, 1776, the Continental Army marched to New York City as the British returned with a large armada- there Washington set up his headquarters. Washington knew that without a navy, defending New York against the world’s strongest naval force would be virtually impossible. The British sent 130 warships and 25,000 troops to New York City in an attempt to quickly end the rebellion. The British plan was to take the Hudson River, thereby dividing New England from Philadelphia and the other colonies. Common Sense: In December, 1775, Thomas Paine wrote his pamphlet, Common Sense, which denounced the King and Aristocrats, called for American independence from Britain, and called for the establishment of a republic. It criticized Britain’s rigid social class structure and said that a republic could best protect the liberties of the individual. In January, 1776, it became an instant best seller. Over 100,000 pamphlets were sold in 1776 alone. Word of Common Sense spread rapidly throughout the Colonies. In the years to come, it would also inspire revolutions around the world in the overthrow of absolute monarchs. Enlistments into the Continental Army exploded after Common Sense, though Washington would have his work cut out for him in training the new recruits.

113 Declaration of IndependenceDebate in Congress: With the Patriot victory and British evacuation of Boston, many people in Congress believed the time had come to declare independence from Britain. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia called for independence. Congress debated the issue and voted to declare independence. A committee was appointed with the task of drafting the document that included: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. Thomas Jefferson was called upon to be the primary drafter the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was a slave holder but knew that slavery was wrong. He knew that every word in the declaration was critical and radical but the question remained- who would to be a free American? Who would to be “in” and who would be “out”? Declaration of Independence: On July 1, 1776, after several drafts, Thomas Jefferson delivered the Declaration of Independence to Congress. Congress tore it apart and Jefferson sat there fuming at their “butchery” of his document. Congress took out 89 different things, including anything relating to slavery. Congress knew that slavery was wrong but did not know how to deal with it. If slavery was abolished, half of the colonies would have left. On July 2, 1776, the Declaration was put to a vote and passed- John Adams announced that forever July 2, 1776, would be a day of celebration- he was off by 2 days as the final changes were finally completed on July 4, 1776. Copies of the Declaration of Independence were set to print and spread throughout the Colonies. Those who signed the Declaration knew that they committed treason and would be hanged if the revolution failed. In New York, a statue of King George was torn down and the lead melted to make 42,000 musket balls.

114 Quick Check What was the significance of Common Sense?Was Thomas Jefferson a hypocrite?

115 Problem 15. Declaration of Independencehttps://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript In terms of format, how would you describe the first paragraph of the Declaration of Independence? What is the purpose of the second paragraph and the list that follows? What is the main point of the third and fourth paragraphs (the two immediately following the list of grievances)? Who is the intended audience of the last paragraph? Explain.

116 Lesson 14 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the how the British won the Battle of New York but Washington escaped through the fog to keep the Revolution alive; Describe the British allies in the American Revolution and how they both helped and hurt the British war effort; Describe the problems facing the Patriots early in the American Revolution; Explain what each side did to handle the surge of prisoners of war; and Explain how the Battle of Trenton, and American Crisis, and Washington’s offer of $10 saved the American Revolution at the end of 1776.

117 Battle of New York Preparations in New York: The Battle of New York:Throughout the early summer months of 1776, the Continental Army dug in on the bluffs of Brooklyn Heights, overlooking New York Harbor and waited. Every day the British brought more troops into their base at Staten Island but they didn’t attack. Washington was dumbfounded as to why the British were not attacking. Then in early July, Washington released a secret weapon, the first combat submarine, called the “Turtle.” The Turtle was a one-man sub that snuck up to an enemy ship, drilled into the side of the boat, and attached an explosive. The Turtle failed at its only mission and was spotted by the British- in its retreat, it sent a tower of water into the air but made no damage to any British ships. The Battle of New York: On July 12, 1776, at 3:00 p.m., the British began firing their cannons and began a barrage of gunfire. Citizens of New York and the Continental Army froze with fear. Then just as suddenly as they started, the British stopped. General Howe sent a message to General Washington to discuss peace, but because he failed to properly address Washington as the Commander of the Continental Army, Washington never read it. In late August, 15,000 British marched towards the Patriots in a frontal assault. The two sides faced off in massive lines about 100-yards apart (European-style). The Americans struggled in open field and forest skirmishes around New York, little did they know they were actually fighting a decoy- the bulk of Howe’s army was attempting to flank them. The rebels retreated and staggered back to Brooklyn Heights; they were now surrounded. The Foggy Escape: In a state of panic, Washington ordered a dangerous nighttime retreat across a narrow slip of water separating the Patriots at Brooklyn Heights and Manhattan. As luck would have it, an eerie dense fog rolled in that night, blanketing the area, making visibility nearly non-existent, and hiding the Patriots as they made their way across the water into Manhattan. The next morning as the British stormed into the Patriot camp, they found it empty. This failure of the British to end the war in 1776 was a critical error. At the same time, it was clear to Washington that he had to abandon New York City if the Continental Army was to live to fight another day.

118 Problems in 1776 Battle of Fort Washington: The Hessians:Only one outpost remained in Patriot hands outside of New York City, Fort Washington. Washington’s inner circle of generals advised him to abandon the fort and order his 3,000 men to retreat. One of Washington’s most trusted advisers, Nathaniel Greene, disagreed. He believed the fort could be saved and convinced Washington not to abandon it; he was wrong. Within a few hours, Fort Washington fell to the British and Hessians and the Patriots were forced to lay down their arms. When the smoke cleared both sides were surprised to see a woman manning one of the Patriot cannons- it was Molly Corbin who took over after her husband was killed (the British sent her home). The Hessians: Along with 8,000 redcoats, the British used thousands of Hessian soldiers in New York and New Jersey Hessians were highly trained mercenary soldiers from an area in modern-day Germany, hired by the British to supplement their forces in the Colonies Hessians were known for their distinctive oval metallic hats, bright uniforms, and mustaches, they were made up of men from the lowest classes of German society and known for their brutality, pillaging, and assaults. Prisoners of War: In November of 1776, Washington retreated into New Jersey in order to re-group and wait out the winter. At the same time, dozens of Patriot prisoners of war died every day on British prisoner of war ships docked in New York Harbor. The British were not prepared to take so many prisoners so they used abandoned buildings, sugar houses, and decommissioned warships as jails for captured rebels. The prisoners received terrible treatment; sickness and starvation were everywhere; and the British treated the rebels as traitors, essentially leaving them to rot on the ships. Most of those who died as prisoners of war were buried in shallow graves on the beaches of Long Island or in the ocean.

119 Quick Check How did George Washington save the Revolution after the defeat at New York?

120 Washington’s ChallengesQuestions of Leadership: Throughout the war Washington’s judgment and leadership were constantly questioned. This was especially true after terrible defeats, as supplies grew scarce, food, munitions, and clothes failed to arrive, and soldiers abandoned the army. Even Washington’s own generals, such as General Charles Lee, generated plans to force Washington out of his command. General Lee and Joseph Reed exchanged letters about Lee’s plan to convince the Congress to remove Washington and give Lee the title of Commander. Washington intercepted the letter but elected to do nothing about it. He knew his power was dwindling after the loss of New York and that he needed a victory badly. Ironically, around the same time, General Lee was captured at a tavern by a British scouting brigade- this event could have saved Washington’s job. American Low Point: The winter of 1776 was a trying time for the Patriots who lacked clothes, food, and supplies. At the same time, the British and Hessians occupied New Jersey. When the local population refused to provide the Hessians with supplies they simply took what they wanted and assaulted the citizens. This provided the perfect opportunity for propaganda against the British. Patriots and loyalists fought in the streets of every major city. With support dwindling and troops deserting, Thomas Paine (who had traveled with Washington’s army as a war correspondent), took action. American Crisis: Washington knew that the British planned to take Philadelphia in the spring of 1777. His plan was to defend the city (the location of Congress), but confidence in Washington was so low following the loss of New York, few colonists believed he could do so. About the same time that people were fleeing from Philadelphia in fear of a British attack, Thomas Paine went into the city to print his new pamphlet, American Crisis. Paine revived the passion of the movement and explained that “these are the times that try men’s souls.” His book was read to the troops and spread through the nation like wildfire; confidence was restored yet again but Washington still knew that he needed a victory to rally his men.

121 Battle of Trenton Battle of Trenton: The French:Howe positioned Hessian regiments along the Delaware River for the winter of 1776 but the troops were spread thin. Washington knew that a surprise attack could greatly boost morale. On Christmas Day, 1776, Washington took his 5,000 troops and crossed the Delaware River under cover of night. By 5:00 a.m. on December 26, 1776, all of Washington’s men began marching towards Trenton. The Hessian commander Colonel Johann Rall was awaiting reinforcements under Dunlop but they never came. The Patriots caught the Hessians off guard and unprepared. The Hessians fought bravely but it was too little, too late as the battle only lasted about one hour before the Hessians surrendered. Rall was killed and Washington had a much needed offensive victory. Washington new strategy was not to win every battle, but to wear down the enemy, make surprise attacks, and retreat before losing too many men. On December 31, 1776, when his men were about to leave to go home, Washington offered them $10 (one month’s salary) to stay and fight for him, one by one most of his men re-enlisted as they had a new confidence in their general and more money. The French: Throughout 1776, Benjamin Franklin was in France. Few people in Paris knew why he was there, but they loved him. They not only loved the idea of the American Revolution (France had extreme wealth and extreme poverty), but they also loved his personality and fashion. Ultimately, Franklin was looking to get the support of the French in the American Revolution. France, and specifically the Comte de Vergennes (who hated England), had been secretly giving rifles, uniforms, gunpowder, and ammunition to the Americans, but they wanted money, troops, and France’s navy. Capture of Fort Ticonderoga: By June 1777, General John Burgoyne had returned. The plan was to divide the Colonies by taking the Hudson River. Burgoyne would march south from Montreal to New York City to meet up with General Howe. Along the way he was to take back Fort Ticonderoga. Burgoyne and 8,000 redcoats faced off against 2,500 Patriots at Fort Ticonderoga. Skirmishing occurred around the fort. Burgoyne had his men bring several large cannons to Mount Defiance overlooking the fort, which forced the Patriots to surrender Ticonderoga without a fight. He left 1,000 men to defend the fort while 7,000 followed the retreating Patriots south along the Hudson River towards New York City.

122 Quick Check What saved the American Revolution at the end of 1776?

123 Problem 16. Jefferson’s Draft on SlaveryThomas Jefferson, Draft of the Declaration of Independence, 1776. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/ruffdrft.html What does Jefferson say in order to accuse the king for the existence of slavery? Is his argument valid? Is Jefferson a hypocrite?

124 Problem 17. Events in Massachusetts: George Washington to William FairfaxLetter of George Washington to William Fairfax (1775). How does Washington describe the events that took place in Massachusetts in April? Based on the letter, how would you describe Washington's attitude toward the events?

125 Lesson 15-16 Objectives Students will be able to:Use primary sources to write an essay explaining whether or not the colonists were justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain. Clearly integrate evidence from the primary sources in writing a cohesive and well-constructed essay on the topic.

126 Lesson 17 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how and why the Battle of Saratoga was the turning point in the war; Explain what the French alliance meant to the Patriot war effort; Describe the challenges facing the Patriots at Valley Forge and how they improved training even in the worst of conditions; Explain what happened at the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse and the fall of Charles Lee as the second in command; and Explain why and how Benedict Arnold betrayed the Patriots and switched to the British side midway through the American Revolution.

127 Battle of Saratoga Battle of Brandywine Creek: Freeman’s Farm:Although the British plan was for General Howe to reinforce General Burgoyne, Howe couldn’t pass up the opportunity to capture Philadelphia. He had his 13,000 redcoats board 260 ships and set sail for Philadelphia, thereby abandoning Burgoyne in upstate New York and abandoning the plan to take the Hudson River. Washington heard about the British movement towards Philadelphia and positioned his forces on the banks of Brandywine Creek. On September 11, 1777, a bloody battle raged, but by 4:00 p.m., the Continental Army began to break. Once again, the Patriots were fighting only half of the British forces while the other half was attempting to flank them. The Patriots retreated and gave up Philadelphia to the British. It was also at Brandywine Creek when a British sniper had the opportunity to kill Washington but did not shoot him as it was dishonorable to shoot officers. Freeman’s Farm: British General Burgoyne had no idea that General Howe had abandoned him or the plan to take the Hudson River. The British and 500 natives of the Iroquois Confederacy marched towards New York City. Most natives were unable to avoid the war. Burgoyne issued a proclamation to the people to surrender or else the natives would attack. In one instance the natives scalped a girl named Jane McCray. This was yet another opportunity for anti-British propaganda. Patriot General Horatio Gates, joined by Daniel Morgan’s riflemen drew the British towards Saratoga Morgan fought using guerilla warfare and picked off every British officer except for one and 600 Regulars at Freeman’s Farm. The British now learned Washington’s dangerous new fighting tactic. Battle of Saratoga: Patriot Generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold met to discuss war plans over dinner but an argument broke out between the men. Although British General Burgoyne discovered that Howe would not be reinforcing him, he faced off against the Patriots at Saratoga anyway. The next day at the battle, Arnold knew the Patriots would lose by following Gates’s plan so he disobeyed orders, led a charge, and organized snipers. He ordered one of those snipers to shoot British General Simon Frasier. Upon his death, the British were disorganized and fell apart. Once again, Benedict Arnold was disgraced. Horatio Gates took all of the credit for the victory at Saratoga despite the actions of the true hero Benedict Arnold. Horatio Gates was yet another officer looking for Washington’s job. After a 7-month campaign, General Burgoyne surrendered his 6,000 men. Those in Britain blamed Howe for abandoning him and the victory solidified French support of the Americans.

128 Battle of Monmouth Valley Forge: British Retreat to New York:After the loss of Philadelphia, Washington’s Continental Army set up camp for the winter 23 miles north of Philadelphia at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The winter turned out to be a bad winter and supplies and morale were low. There were also those who wanted Horatio Gates to head the Patriot forces instead of Washington. At Valley Forge 2,500 men died of disease, cold, and starvation. At the same time, Frederick Wilhelm Augustus Heinrich Ferdinand Baron von Steuben arrived. He was a Prussian officer and knight who trained 100 Continental Officers in European drills (they would in turn train men). British Retreat to New York: After hearing about the victory at Saratoga, Benjamin Franklin convinced King Louis XVI of France to support the Americans. Upon hearing of the new alliance, the British decided to abandon Philadelphia and move the bulk of their forces to New York City in order to defend against a French naval attack. On June 20, 1778 the British began their march from Mount Holly to New York City and Washington wanted a fight. Battle of Monmouth Courthouse: On June 28, 1778, Washington ordered newly released General Charles Lee to march 5,000 men to attack the rear of the British lines as they marched towards New York City and Washington and 7,000 troops would wait behind to fight if the British responded. Lee did not attack, but instead retreated- partly due to the 104 degree day (which exhausted and dehydrated the men). He was later court-martialed for his disobedience. Furious, Washington rode his horse ahead of his troops and led an attack. 20,000 soldiers fought an intense battle but sunstroke was the biggest killer. To help the men, women like Mary Hayes McCauley, later named Molly Pitcher, brought water to the dehydrated Patriots on the battlefield. In the end, the battle was a draw but the Americans gained confidence that they could hold their own against the British.

129 Quick Check Why was the Battle of Saratoga the turning point in the American Revolution? Why didn’t the British victory at Philadelphia (the Patriot capital) cause celebration in Great Britain?

130 Benedict Arnold’s TreasonJohn Paul Jones: In April of 1778, the American merchant ship, the Ranger, under the command of 31-year old, Scottish-born sailor John Paul Jones, raided British coastal villages, burned British ships, and surprise attacked merchant ships. Jones left Europe for a new beginning in America and was now attempting to wear down the British desire to fight the war on their own turf. Jones was known as a pirate in Great Britain but a hero in America. In one expedition, Jones attacked the British warship, the HMS Drake. After an hour, the Drake surrendered. Jones quickly boarded his new prize and fled to France. He later renamed his prize the Bon Homme Richard. Benedict Arnold: After being injured at the Battle of Saratoga, George Washington appointed Benedict Arnold the military governor of Philadelphia. After the British abandoned the city, it was clear that the people of Philadelphia were poor, starving, and regularly engaged in violent protests. As military governor, Arnold closed stores to take an inventory of goods in order to supply the military. This angered the elected governor of Pennsylvania Joseph Reed, who believed that he should have complete control of the affairs of the city. Reed accused Arnold of abuse of power by closing the stores for his own benefit. Arnold went before the Congress, which cleared him of these charges, but secretly Reed gave Washington an ultimatum. He was to either try Arnold or Pennsylvania would withdraw its troops from the army. Hoping this would blow over quickly Washington publicly reprimanded Arnold. Washington actually had Arnold in mind for a new field post as one of his top generals. Unaware of the ultimatum, Arnold was crushed. Treason: The public criticism by Washington, the disrespect from Ethan Allen, and the slight to his honor by Horatio Gates had all sent Benedict Arnold over the edge. Arnold contacted the British head of intelligence, John Andre, and made a deal. Arnold would give information about the Continental Army and surrender Fort Arnold (West Point) to the British. The British would give Arnold 20,000 pounds and the title of Brigadier General. John Andre was caught by the Patriots, taken prisoner, and hanged just before Arnold was able to put the plan into effect. Washington learned about Arnold’s treason. Benedict Arnold was able to escape to the British camp and served out the rest of the war as a Brigadier General in the British army.

131 Quick Check Was Benedict Arnold’s treason understandable?Can we forgive him for betraying the Patriots?

132 Problem 18. Benedict Arnold’s ProclamationProclamation by Brigadier-General Benedict Arnold (October 20, 1780). In the proclamation, how does Benedict Arnold try to recruit American soldiers to the British side? How does he play on religious prejudices and distrust of the French? How does he use problems on the home front to support his arguments? In what ways are his arguments effective and in what ways are they ineffective?

133 Lesson 18 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the British siege of Charleston and why the Patriots lost the city; Describe the fighting in the Southern theater and how both sides divided their forces and fought several smaller battles in the South; Explain how the Patriots and French converged at Yorktown, Virginia and essentially ended the war; and Summarize the key points of the Treaty of Paris, ending the American Revolution.

134 Siege of Charleston Winter of 1780: Siege of Charleston:The winter of was the worst in recorded history. There were 26 snowstorms, 6 blizzards, and only 2 days above freezing. The Patriots were camped in Morristown, New Jersey, only 30 miles west of New York City. The British unveiled a new war strategy- the southern strategy- to bring the war that had cost it nearly 160 million pounds closer to an end. It hoped to gain a foothold in the wealthy South where there were more loyalists and more exports. The new commander of the British forces was General Sir Henry Clinton. Siege of Charleston: On December 26, 1779, British General Sir Henry Clinton received his orders to take Charleston. He loaded 100 ships and 8,700 men in New York City and left for Charleston. George Washington learned the British plan but could do nothing to stop them because he was buried in snow in Morristown. The defense of Charleston would be left to a Massachusetts farmer, Major General Benjamin Lincoln. Lincoln asked South Carolina’s governor for more troops or even slaves to defend the city but to no avail. He attempted to ready the city with earthen walls, trenches, and obstacles but these would be useless without additional troops. Clinton arrived 20-miles from Charleston on February 11, 1780, and began to build parallel circles around the city to carry out a siege. Each day the circles would tighten around the city like a noose. From February until May Lincoln maintained control but on May 12, 1780, Lincoln had no choice but to surrender Charleston and his 5,000 men to the British. The Waxhaw Massacre: The capture of Charleston was a devastating blow to the Patriots. As 300 Patriots were fleeing from Charleston under Colonel Abraham Buford, a British Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton and his cavalry caught up with them. Fighting lasted only a short time before the Americans flew the white flag in surrender. Despite this, Tarleton butchered the surrendering Colonials. Nicknamed the “Waxhaw Massacre,” Tarleton’s act merely drew a reprimand but it became the subject of negative propaganda against the British. After Charleston, the British gave the colonists a final ultimatum: pledge allegiance to the king or be considered a rebel. This backfired and pushed neutral Colonists into rebellion against the British.

135 British Divide Forces Battle of Camden: Battle of Cowpens:As the British began to focus their attention into the wild southern backcountry, resistance grew deeper. Sir Henry Clinton returned to New York City and left General Charles Cornwallis in command of the South. In July of 1780, Horatio Gates took command of the southern part of the Continental Army and faced off against Cornwallis at Camden, South Carolina (5,000 British vs. 3,000 Patriots). Unfortunately for Gates, he made a tactical error facing his weakest militia off against the strongest British regiment. The militia quickly lost and Gates, along with his men, fled for their lives. It was said that Gates cowardly rode his horse as fast as he could for 200 miles without stopping, destroying his honor. Battle of Cowpens: After the cowardly retreat of Gates, Nathaniel Greene was sent to lead the southern forces. Greene quickly learned that Cornwallis was on the march. Greene divided his forces. Half marched under Patriot legend Daniel Morgan and led the British on a wild goose chase through the backcountry. Half remained with Greene, a quicker and lighter regiment, to outrun the British. The British responded by dividing forces. On January 17, 1781, Daniel Morgan faced off against Banastre Tarleton and his men. Morgan placed his lesser-trained militia in the front and ordered them to fire two volleys and then fall back, when the British charged, his well-trained regular army and cavalry would attack. The plan worked perfectly and within an hour, Tarleton’s men surrendered. This time Tarleton cowardly rode off as fast as he could. Battle of Guilford Courthouse: British General Cornwallis was obsessed with following General Greene throughout the southern backcountry. Greene’s goal was to wear down Cornwallis without getting into any major confrontations. Cornwallis realized that his troops were carrying too many supplies and ordered a large bonfire to burn the unnecessary supplies. On February 22, 1781, it was clear that the two would face off in battle. Greene positioned his men on favorable territory across the Dan River in North Carolina. The two sides fought in a bloody melee, in close quarters, and in hand-to-hand combat. To gain the upper hand, Cornwallis had his men fire a cannon into the chaos, killing as many of his own men as Patriots. The Patriots retreated and Cornwallis won the skirmish but it proved nothing. More than anything is showed that months of chasing Greene through terrible terrain was a waste.

136 Battle of Yorktown Money Problems: Convergence at Yorktown:One of the major problems the Continental Army faced was a lack of money. Though Spain and France had been supporting the American cause, the Continental Congress did not have the right to tax the people, and therefore, could not raise the money it needed for war. On January 1, 1781, the Continental soldiers at Morristown had reached their limit New Jersey militiamen began to rebel. Washington quickly stopped them and ordered the six ringleaders to be executed by firing squad. The firing squad consisted of their closest friends. At the same time, Benjamin Franklin continued to beg King Louis, XVI for more money despite the fact that he already gave over $100 million towards the war. In March 1781, Admiral François Joseph Paul Comte de Grasse readied his ship the Ville de Paris with cargo headed for the Caribbean. After unloading there, he was to head to America with his fleet of ships. Convergence at Yorktown: In 1781, British General Henry Clinton ordered General Cornwallis to set up a base in the southern coast at Yorktown, Virginia. In July, 1781, French Admiral de Grasse left the Caribbean and headed for Yorktown. It was the French who wanted to strike the British at Yorktown; Washington agreed. Washington marched his Continental Army with every cannon, gun, and man, as well as 5,000 French ground troops under the Marquis de Lafayette to Yorktown. Cornwallis frequently wrote to General Clinton seeking reinforcements and supplies, but Clinton would not respond quickly enough. The End Game: On September 5, 1781, Admiral de Grasse took on and defeated the British navy in the Chesapeake Bay. The battle took four days, but by the end, the French controlled the waters around Yorktown. One by one Cornwallis’s escape routes were blocked: The French controlled the York River; Washington took the south; and French ground troops took the north and west. On October 6, 1781, a combined French-American force of 17,000 began a siege of Yorktown. On October 19, 1781, the British surrendered. 7,000 redcoats laid down their weapons and Washington and Cornwallis met on October 27.

137 Quick Check Describe the siege of Yorktown.Why do you suppose Sir Henry Clinton was reluctant to send reinforcement to Cornwallis until it was too late?

138 Treaty of Paris British Surrender: Treaty of Paris:On November 19, 1781 in France, Benjamin Franklin learned about the surrender at Yorktown. King George, III did not plan to give up, but 6 months after Yorktown, Parliament voted to end the war. Sir Guy Carleton arrived to oversee the end of the war. Washington and his men also remained alert to oversee the British and loyalist evacuation. In April, 1782, peace negotiations began in Paris (Franklin, Adams, and Jay). Adams and Jay infuriated the French but Franklin was there to smooth things over. Treaty of Paris: A preliminary peace treaty was reached on November 30, 1782. It recognized the United States of America; Gave American fishing rights off of Nova Scotia; The western boundary was set along the Mississippi River but Great Britain and the United States would have navigation and fishing rights on the river; and The treaty completely left out France and Spain. In the fall of 1783, the official Treaty of Paris was signed. One by one, the nations of Europe recognized American independence. By November 1783, the last of the British, most of the loyalists, and freed slaves left the United States (many of the former slaves were brought to Canada as freedmen or brought to the West Indies as slaves). On December 23, 1783, Washington gave his farewell address to the Congress, retiring from all future public service, and returning home to Mount Vernon.

139 Problem 19. Surrender at YorktownCorrespondence and Terms of Surrender between George Washington and Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown October 17-19, 1781. How would you characterize the terms of surrender Washington offered Cornwallis? What does Washington emphasize when he conveys the news of the surrender to the Continental Congress?

140 Lesson Objectives Lesson 19: Review- Students will review and refine their understandings of the unit content objectives. Lesson 20: Unit Test- Students will demonstrate understanding of the unit objectives through a unit test.

141 United States History IUnit II: A New Nation

142 Lesson 21 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the governments of the new “states”; Explain what the Articles of Confederation were and what they established in the United States; Explain the achievements of the Confederation government in establishing new western lands and organizing the governments of those territories under the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787; Explain the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation; and Explain why drafting a new Constitution was deemed necessary by many of the Founding Fathers.

143 New State Republics After the Declaration of Independence was signed, Congress invited each state to write a Constitution that guaranteed republican governments- where the people elected their representatives. What kind of republican governments would be created? How much power would be given to the common people? Fears existed over giving too much power to the common people (as in a democracy) but fears also existed over concentrating too much power in the hands of a few (oligarchy) or a single person (like in a monarchy). The argument in favor of giving more power to the common man was that it would create a greater electorate with more districts and more representatives. States in favor of the greatest expansion of power for the common man pushed for the right of the common man to vote for all government officials (this was rare). States like Pennsylvania opened up voting to all men over 21 who paid taxes. The argument against giving significantly more power to the common man was that most were uneducated and owned little property. The wealthy and educated elite were nervous that given such an important power (the vote), the common person would be driven by his own self-interest, make bad decisions, and ruin the new nation. More conservative states (the majority) kept property restrictions on the right to vote. John Adams warned that giving the vote to the poor and uneducated would “confound and destroy all distinction, and prostrate all ranks to the common levels.” Legislatures would be the most important branch of any state government: Unicameral Legislatures- one house legislatures were adopted only in two states: Pennsylvania & Georgia. Bicameral Legislatures- two house legislatures were adopted in all of the other states. Religious Liberty- most states granted freedom of religion by 1780 (exceptions: Massachusetts and Connecticut).

144 Articles of ConfederationThe Articles of Confederation were America’s first constitution. They were drafted in 1777 and ratified in 1781. They created a league of friendship, or an alliance of the states, whereby the states agreed to work together. John Dickinson led the creation of a loose confederation of the thirteen states, with a weak central Congress. The new federal (national) government consisted of representatives chosen by state legislatures (not the people). Each state had one vote regardless of the number of representatives it sent to Congress. There was no president or executive branch. Powers of Congress under the Articles of Confederation: Conduct war and maintain peace; Regulate foreign affairs; and Deal with Native American groups. Major Problems with the Articles of Confederation: No power of Congress to tax the people; No ability of Congress to regulate interstate commerce; No ability to force states to contribute money to the national government; Between 7 and 9 states had to agree in order for any laws to be passed; 13 states had to agree to amend the Articles themselves; and No executive or judiciary existed.

145 Northwest Territory The Northwest Territory was the land between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes. The major achievement of the Confederation government was that it was able to organize the Northwest Territory for sale to settlers, to establish republican governments in the territories, and to establish a method for adding new states to the Union. Land Ordinance of created a system for selling public land by dividing the land up into a grid pattern. Towns were 6 square mile blocks that were each subdivided into 36 section. Each section was further subdivided into plots of 640 square acres to be sold by Congress for at least $1/acre. The wealthy bought up the 640 acre plots and further subdivided them and sold them to common settlers who could not have afforded the larger plots sold by Congress. Northwest Ordinance of provided a government for the western territories. At first Congress appointed a territorial governor, secretary, and three judges for each territory. The territories were guaranteed freedom of religion, trial by jury, common law rights, and no slavery. Once the territory reached a population of 5,000 men, they could create an elected assembly. Once the territory reached a population of 60,000 men, it could request to become a state on equal standing with the existing states. States created from the Northwest Territories: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The Expansion alarmed the region’s Native Americans (100,000), whose lands were now threatened.

146 Quick Check Albeit limited, what were the successes of the Confederation government?

147 Foreign Relations Disputes with Spain: Disputes with Great Britain:Spain feared U.S. expansion as a threat to its territories of Louisiana and Mexico. To prevent further U.S. westward expansion (beyond the Appalachian Mountains), Spain forbade U.S. trade in New Orleans. Frontier settlers were outraged because they depended upon the Mississippi River and trade in New Orleans to make money (from which they would buy any goods that they could not make on their individual farms). Disputes with Great Britain: Great Britain remained bitter from the American Revolution and rejected the idea of free trade with the U.S. Instead it agreed to trade with the U.S. so long as the U.S. followed the Navigation Acts (British ships, British crews, only certain goods, etc.), which restricted U.S. free trade. Congress was too weak under the Articles of Confederation to develop a common policy towards Britain, so each state either followed Britain’s demands or simply did not trade with it. Each state was on its own in that determination. Britain also maintained its forts on American territory in the west. Again, Congress was too weak to demand that they leave American soil.

148 Economic Problems Under The Articles of ConfederationEconomically: Congress did not have the ability to: Establish a common currency; Regulate interstate commerce; Levy taxes; or Force states to pay their share. From , states only paid 1/6 of their share, which nearly bankrupted the country. Congress couldn’t even amend the Articles of Confederation to help solve the country’s economic problems because all states had to agree in order to amend the Articles. Shay’s Rebellion: Unemployment was high due to lack of trade but state government still required people to pay high taxes. In addition, farmers did not make enough money from trade to meet the debts that they owed to suppliers. The suppliers foreclosed on their debts, often repossessing family farms. States threatened imprisoning those who could not pay their taxes. In 1787, 1,000 Massachusetts farmers, led by Daniel Shays, seized weapons at the Springfield Armory and shut down the courts to prevent further foreclosures and seizures. The Massachusetts government raised an army and put down the rebellion fairly easily but Shay’s Rebellion made it clear throughout the country that the nation’s economy was in trouble and the Articles of Confederation were partially to blame.

149 Constitutional ConventionIn 1787, most agreed that the Articles of Confederation needed major revisions. A special convention was called; in May of 1787, delegates began to arrive in Philadelphia Pennsylvania (Independence Hall) to revise the Articles. Federal Convention: All states attended except for Rhode Island; There were strict rules of secrecy so delegates could speak freely; Most leading statesmen were in attendance (except for John Adams and Thomas Jefferson who were U.S. diplomats in Europe at the time). Delegates: The oldest delegate was Benjamin Franklin (of PA) at 81 years old; The youngest delegate was Jonathan Dayton (of NJ) at 26 years old; All were white men; all were wealthy; more than half were lawyers; and The delegates unanimously elected George Washington to preside over the convention. Alexander Hamilton v. James Madison: Hamilton: favored a change in government similar to the British model but infused with republicanism. Madison: arrived early with his Virginia Plan in hand. He argued that a strong national government could rescue the democratic mistakes made by the states but the republican system, not the British system, would be best. He claimed that a large republic with many different interests would balance and “check” on each other.

150 Quick Check What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

151 Problem 20: Articles of Confederationhttps://www.loc.gov/search/?fa=segmentof%3Arbpe %2F&st=gallery&sb=shelf-id What events from the 1700s are specifically addressed in the Articles of Confederation? What specific powers are given to the Congress in the Articles of Confederation? Is there any mention of a chief executive? Is there any mention of a judicial branch? If so, where? Which provisions were passed specifically in the case of war? Which provisions point to the sovereignty of the states? Were the Articles of Confederation merely a friendship / loose alliance of states working together to coexist? Explain your answer with evidence from the document.

152 Problem 21: Northwest Ordinance of 1787https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=8&page=transcript What is the purpose of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787? Describe the governments permitted in the Northwest Territories? What provisions in the Ordinance aim to guarantee that the settlers will enjoy “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”?

153 Lesson 22-23 Objectives Students will be able to:Demonstrate understanding of the unit objectives through a mock Constitutional Convention.

154 Lesson 24 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the major components of the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan; Explain the Great Compromise that was adopted; Explain the compromises that were agreed to with respect to slavery, such as the Three-Fifths Compromise, the Fugitive Slave Law, and the 20-year protection of the Slave Trade; Summarize the major debates at the Constitutional Convention; and Explain how the proposed Constitution was approved by the delegates at the Convention.

155 Constitutional DebatesVirginia Plan: Edmund Randolph from Virginia introduced the Virginia Plan to the Convention, which was drafted by James Madison as he waited for the other delegates to arrive at the Convention (it favored more populated states). Three branch government: legislative, executive, & judicial; Bicameral legislature: lower house elected by the people and an upper house selected by the states. Representation in both houses would be based on the population of the state; Legislative veto over any state law; and Executive led by a President, who would serve for 7-years and would head the military, manage foreign affairs, and appoint executive and judicial officers (subject to the Senate’s approval). New Jersey Plan: Written and presented by William Patterson of New Jersey (it favored less populated states and merely revised the Articles of Confederation). Unicameral legislature: one house called Congress. Representation in Congress would be based on equality, with each state receiving the same number of representatives; Executive committee instead of a chief executive; and States remained sovereign similar to the Articles of Confederation.

156 Compromise at the ConventionConnecticut Compromise (“Great Compromise”): Drafted by Roger Sherman of Connecticut & John Dickinson of Pennsylvania; Three branch government: legislative, executive, & judicial; Bicameral legislature BUT: Upper house (Senate)- representation would be based on equality, giving each state two Senators, and Lower house (House of Representatives) representation would be based on the population of the state, with larger states receiving more representatives than smaller states. Federalism adopted- sharing of power between the states and national government. Slavery: The South worried that it would receive less representation in the new government and that the North would soon outlaw slavery. As a compromise to the South, three provisions in the proposed Constitution protected slavery: 1. Three-Fifths Compromise- each slave counted as 3/5 of a person in determining a states representation in the House of Representatives and in the Electoral College; 2. Congress was forbidden from outlawing the slave trade for 20-years (1808 at the earliest); 3. Fugitive Slave Law- all states were required to help return runaway slaves back to their owners.

157 Conclusion of the ConventionBill of Rights The delegate at the Convention debated whether or not a bill of rights was needed or whether the state constitutions secured individual rights. Conclusion of the Convention 39 men signed the proposed Constitution and 3 refused to sign it (George Mason and Edmund Randolph from Virginia and Elbridge Gerry from Massachusetts). Indirect Democracy was established for our Republic. Common property owning men voted for representatives to be their voice in the House of Representatives only. State legislatures chose Senators Electoral College was established to select the President and Vice President. Each state decided how to select their electoral college delegates. Judiciary was to be appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. Judges would serve for life (to insulate them from re- election or re-appointment). Constitution became the Supreme law of the U.S. in 1789 and has lasted for nearly 250 years. The Constitution contains some flexibility in the wording so that it could apply to an uncertain future but the bones and structure of the document are solid. Amendments also provide the possibility of making drastic changes to the framework of government if a drastic change is necessary. The procedure is difficult in order to avoid over-using the amendment process. All amendments must be approved by 2/3 of the Congress and ratified by 3/4 of the states. So far the Constitution has only been amended 27 times.

158 Problem 22: Virginia PlanEdmund Randolph’s Virginia Plan (1787). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=7&page=transcript Describe the structure of the national government according to the Virginia Plan? What ideas found in the Virginia Plan would eventually become part of the U.S. Constitution? What ideas found in the Virginia Plan would not become part of the U.S. Constitution?

159 Problem 23: New Jersey PlanWilliam Patterson’s New Jersey Plan (1787). Describe the structure of the national government according to the New Jersey Plan? What ideas found in the New Jersey Plan would eventually become part of the U.S. Constitution? What ideas found in the New Jersey Plan would not become part of the U.S. Constitution?

160 Lesson 25 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the philosophical roots of the U.S Constitution; Explain what federalism is and how powers are divided between the different levels of government (federal, state, and local); List and describe the three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial); Explain the requirements for ratification of the Constitution; and Demonstrate an understanding of the key provisions of Articles I & II of the United States Constitution.

161 Constitutional Roots Philosophical Roots of the Constitution:Ancient Greece: democracy; Ancient Rome: republicanism (Senate); England: Magna Carta (Constitutional Monarchy): Limited power of king; Increased power of Parliament; and English Bill of Rights. European Enlightenment: Spread of knowledge, reason, and science to improve society. Philosophers: John Locke (all people have natural rights of life, liberty, and property, and consent of the governed). Baron de Montesquieu (power of the government should be separated and balanced against itself to prevent any one group from becoming too powerful (separation of power and the idea of checks and balances). Federalism: Three levels of government in the U.S.: Federal government (national government in Washington D.C.); State government (in Boston); and Local Government (county government and government in cities and towns). Federalism is the sharing of power between the national and state governments. Federal Powers: Tax, Regulate National Trade, Currency, Army, Declare War, and to pass any laws “necessary and proper” to carry out its responsibilities. State Powers: Tax, Regulate Trade in the State, Set Up Local Governments, Schools, and Police Powers. Federal & State Shared Powers: Taxing and Making Criminal Laws. The Constitution = the Supreme Law of the Land.

162 Constitutional BasicsThree Branches of Government (to separate and spread out power): Legislative Branch (Article I)- makes the laws: 2 House Congress. Lower House is the House of Representatives (proportional to population). Upper House is the Senate (2 senators per state). Powers: make taxes, coin money, regulate trade, declare war, raise an army, and pass all laws “necessary and proper.” Executive Branch (Article II)- carries out laws: President, Vice-President, other Officers. Duties: commander in chief of military, foreign relations. President & Vice President are selected by the Electoral College. Judicial Branch (Article III)- interprets the laws: Supreme Court (with 9 Justices) and Lower Federal Courts (created by the Judiciary Act of 1789). Checks and Balances: each branch has a way to check or limit the power of the other branches so that the other branches do not become too powerful. Ratification of the Constitution: Ratification (approval) of the Constitution required at least 9 of the 13 states. Adoption: Delaware was the first state to approve it on December 7, 1787. New Hampshire was the ninth state to approve it on June 21, 1788. The 2 largest states, New York and Virginia didn’t approve it right away (Virginia demanded a Bill of Rights). Once a Bill of Rights was promised, Virginia finally approved it. In 1791 the first 10 Amendments were added and gave us a Bill of Rights.

163 Three Branches of GovernmentLegislative Branch: Lower House: House of Representatives. 435 Voting Members. 5 Non-Voting Members (D.C., Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands). Upper House: Senate. 100 Members: 2 from each state. Congress makes the laws, controls spending, and regulates interstate trade. Congress has certain implied powers not specifically stated in the Constitution under the “elastic clause” of Article 1 Section 8: to “make all laws which shall be necessary and proper” in carrying out its duties. Executive Branch: Made up of the President, Vice President, Offices, Departments, and Agencies. The Executive Branch carries out laws. Duties of the President: Chief Diplomat; Commander and Chief of the Military; Head of State; and Proposer of laws to Congress. The Cabinet is a group of advisors to the President and includes his Secretaries and Department Heads. Judicial Branch: Supreme Court (9 Supreme Court Justices- one of whom is Chief Justice) Lower Federal Courts In 1789 Congress passed the Judiciary Act and established 91 District Courts. In Courts of Appeals were added. Marbury v. Madison: Chief Justice John Marshall extended the rights of the Supreme Court by deeming an Act passed by Congress to be unconstitutional (judicial review- judging the constitutionality of laws).

164 Quick Check What are the three branches of government and what do they each do?

165 Preamble & Article I, § 1-2 The Preamble of the Constitution (States the purposes of the Constitution): To form a more perfect union; To establish justice; To ensure domestic tranquility; To provide for the common defense; To promote the general welfare; and To secure the blessings of liberty to us and those who come after us. Article I: Legislative Branch (Makes the Laws) Section 1: Creates Congress (bicameral legislature) House of Representatives (lower house) Senate (upper house) Section 2: The House of Representatives 1. Representatives chosen every 2 years 2. Qualifications Must be at least 25 years old Must be a U.S. citizen for at least 7 years Must live in the state that is being represented 3. Proportional Representation The number of representatives and taxes will be based on the population of the state Census must be taken every 10 years to calculate the population 4. When seats in the House become vacant a special election will fill them 5. Specific Powers of the House of Representatives To select a leader called the Speaker of the House To select Officers of the House The sole power of Impeachment

166 Article I, § 3 Article I: Section 3: The Senate1. Two Senators from every state, each serves a 6 year term 2. One-third of the Senate is elected every two years (staggered) 3. Qualifications Must be at least 30 years old Must be a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years Must live in the state that is being represented 4. Vice President of the U.S. is the presiding officer of the Senate He has no vote unless there is a tie 5. The President Pro Tempore is second in charge after the Vice President 6. Senate has the sole power to try impeachments An oath is taken The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides over the hearing of an impeached President Two-thirds of the Senate must vote for impeachment to convict 7. An impeached person who is convicted is removed from office and may face charges under the law

167 Article I, § 4-6 Article I: Section 4: Elections1. Election Rules States make election laws Congress can intervene and change those laws 2. Congress must be in session at least once per year Section 5: Lawmaking Requirements 1. Quorum & Adjournment A majority of members is needed to do business: quorum A smaller number may end business for the day: adjournment 2. Each house makes rules of conduct for members 3. Each house must keep a record or journal of proceedings and votes 4. Neither house can adjourn for more than 3 days without consent of the other Section 6: Pay 1. Members of Congress are paid for their services from the U.S. Treasury and are immune from arrest while in session or when going to or from session (other than major felonies) 2. Members of Congress cannot hold other government offices while serving in Congress

168 Article I, § 7 Article I: Section 7: Bills1. All tax laws must start in the House of Representatives 2. How a Bill Becomes a Law A representative drafts a Bill (proposed law) The Bill is introduced in the House of Representatives The Bill goes to House Committee The House Committee collects evidence, holds hearings, makes amendments, and votes on the Bill If the House Committee approves it, the Bill goes to the whole House of Representatives The whole House debates and votes on the Bill If the majority of the House favors the Bill it goes to the Senate The Bill goes to the Senate Committee The Senate Committee collects evidence, holds hearings, makes amendments, and votes on the Bill If the Senate Committee approves it, the Bill goes to the whole Senate The whole Senate debates and votes on the Bill If the majority of the Senate favors the Bill it goes back to the House of Representatives The whole House considers the Senate’s amendments and votes again A Conference Committee rewrites any unacceptable amendments Both houses vote on the amended Bill If both houses approve the Bill, it goes to the President of the U.S. If the president signs the Bill it becomes law; OR…if the President Vetoes (rejects) the Bill, and then two-thirds of each house favors the vetoed Bill, it becomes law without the President’s signature OR…the President takes no action on the Bill for 10 days while Congress is in session, the Bill becomes a law without the President’s signature OR…the President takes no action on the Bill and Congress has adjourned, so the Bill does not become a law (Pocket Veto) Congress can override a Presidential Veto with a two-thirds majority

169 Quick Check What are the president’s choices when a bill reaches his desk for signature? How can Congress override a presidential veto?

170 Article I, § 8 Article I: Section 8: Expressed or Enumerated Powers of Congress 1. Tax for the Common Defense and General Welfare 2. Borrow Money 3. Regulate Commerce 4. Create Immigration Law and Bankruptcy Law 5. Coin Money and Set Weights and Measures 6. Regulate and Punish Counterfeiting of Money 7. Post Office 8. Patents and Copyrights 9. Set Up Lower Courts (Under the Supreme Court) 10. Regulate Maritime Law and Punish Piracy 11. Declare War 12. Raise and Support an Army 13 Maintain a Navy 14. Make and enforce Military Law 15. Call Militias to End Rebellions 16. Train the National Military 17. Make Laws on Federal Property 18. Necessary & Proper Clause To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers

171 Article I, § 9-10 Article I: Section 9: Powers Not Held By Congress1. Congress cannot pass laws regulating the slave trade until 1808 2. Writ of Habeas Corpus (show of cause for holding a prisoner) cannot be suspended unless there is a rebellion, invasion, or for public safety 3. No Ex Post Facto Laws (law made after an act to make it illegal) of Bills of Attainder (cannot punish someone without a trial) 4. Taxes have to be set according to population 5. No states can be given preferential treatment regarding imposts or duties 6. Money cannot be taken from the treasury without following a law 7. Titles of nobility are illegal Section 10: Powers Not Held by States 1. No State can: Form Treaties or Alliances Coin Money Pass Bills of Attainder or Ex Post Facto Laws Grant titles of nobility 2. No State can Set Import or Export Taxes or Duties 3. No State can Engage in War unless invaded or in imminent danger

172 Quick Check In what ways does the Legislative Branch check the powers of the Executive & Judicial Branches according to Article I of the Constitution?

173 Problem 24: U.S. Constitution Preamble & Article IUnited States Constitution Preamble & Article I. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=9 Constitution Scavenger Hunt

174 Lesson 26 Objectives Students will be able to:Demonstrate an understanding of the key provisions of Articles II & VII of the United States Constitution; Demonstrate an understanding of the key rights and liberties contained within Amendments 1-10 of the United States Constitution (the Bill of Rights); and Demonstrate an understanding of the purposes of Amendments of the United States Constitution.

175 Article II, § 1 Article II: Executive Branch (enforces the laws)Section 1: Executive Power 1. President and Vice President 4 Year Terms 2. Election by Electoral College appointed by each state Electors equal to the number of Senators and Representatives of a state 3. [Repealed] Originally the top vote getter would be President and the runner up would be Vice President- now they run as a team together 4. Congress Determines Election Day 5. Qualifications for President and Vice President Must be born in the U.S. Must be at least 35 years old Must be a resident of the U.S. for at least 14 years 6. If the President should die, resign, or be unable to perform, the Vice President takes over Congress will determine the sequence of who would become President if the Vice President should die, etc. 7. President will be paid for his services 8. President will take an Oath of Office

176 Article II, § 2-4 Article II: Section 2: Military Commander in Chief1. President is the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy President can call upon principal advisors in each executive department for advice (the Cabinet) President has the authority to pardon people (except in cases of impeachment) 2. President has the Power to: Make Treaties (with consent of 2/3 of Senate) Appoint Ambassadors, Public Ministers, and Consuls (with consent of the Senate) Appoint Supreme Court Judges and other Officers of the U.S. (with the consent of the Senate) Congress appoints lower officers, judges, and department heads 3. President can appoint interim officers while Senate is not in session Section 3: State of the Union President suggests laws and policies for Congress to address In extreme circumstances the President can convene both houses Chief of State: President deals with foreign affairs Chief Executive: President is the chief executor of the laws Section 4: Reasons for Impeachment Treason Bribery Other High Crimes and Misdemeanors

177 Quick Check In what ways does the Executive Branch check the powers of the Legislative & Judicial Branches according to Article II of the Constitution?

178 Article III Article III: Judicial Branch (Judges Meaning of Laws)Section 1: Judicial power vested in one Supreme Court and inferior courts established by Congress Federal Judges hold offices for life so long as good behavior Federal Judges paid for their services Section 2: Authority of Judicial Power All cases in law and equity under Constitution Federal Laws Treaties Cases involving high officials Cases in admiralty and maritime law Cases where the U.S. is a party Diversity Jurisdiction- Controversies between states, between a state and a citizen of another state, between citizens of different states, and between a state and foreign states, citizens, or subjects Jurisdiction of Supreme Court Original Jurisdiction: all cases involving ambassadors, public ministers, consuls, and where a state is a party Appellate Jurisdiction: cases involving appeals Criminal Trials in Federal Courts (Except Impeachment): Jury Trials held in the state where the crime was committed Section 3: Treason against the U.S. 1. Crime of Treason Levying War Against U.S. Giving Aid and Comfort to Enemies of U.S. A conviction requires testimony of at least 2 witnesses or confession in open court 2. Congress Sets Punishment for Treason

179 Quick Check In what ways does the Judicial Branch check the powers of the Legislative & Executive Branches according to Article III of the Constitution?

180 Articles IV-VII Article IV: Relations Among the StatesSection 1: Full Faith and Credit Clause Each state must respect the laws and decisions of the other states Section 2: Privileges and Immunities Clause 1. Citizens of other states are given the same rights as citizens of a state 2. Fugitives of justice will be returned to the state he fled from 3. [Repealed] Return of Fugitive Slaves Section 3: New States and Territories 1. New States can be admitted but can’t be formed from an existing state 2. Congress makes laws in unorganized territories Section 4: Each State is Guaranteed a Republican Form of Government Article V: Amendments Proposed: 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress OR a national convention called by 2/3 of the state legislatures Ratified (Approval): a Constitutional Convention in 3/4 of the states OR approval of 3/4 of the state legislatures Article VI: National Supremacy Section 1: All debts incurred before the Constitution shall be valid against U.S. Section 2: The Constitution, Laws passed by Congress, and Treaties of the U.S. are the Supreme Law of the Land Section 3: Public officers take an oath to support the Constitution Article VII: Ratification 9 States must ratify (approve) the Constitution to make it official

181 Amendments 1-10 (Bill of Rights)Amendment 1: Protects Right to Freedom of Speech, Religion, Press, Assembly, and Petitioning the Government Amendment 2: Right to Bear Arms and Maintain a Militia Amendment 3: No Mandatory Quartering of Soldiers Amendment 4: Right against Unreasonable Searches and Seizures and the requirement to obtain a valid Search Warrant based on probable cause Amendment 5: Right to Due Process of the law (you must be charged with the crime and face a judge); No Double Jeopardy in criminal cases; Right Not to Testify Against Oneself in criminal trials Amendment 6: Right to Speedy and Public Trial; Right to Jury Trial and a lawyer; Right to Confront Witnesses Against You in Criminal Cases Amendment 7: Right to Jury Trial in Civil Cases Over $20 Amendment 8: Punishments will be fair, No Excessive Bail; No Cruel and Unusual Punishment Amendment 9: Other Rights besides those Outlined in the Constitution Exist Amendment 10: Any Powers Not Delegated to the Federal Government are Reserved for the State Governments or to the People

182 Quick Check Was a Bill of Rights a necessary part of the Constitution?What are the most important rights given to individuals in the Bill of Rights? Does the federal government today respect the Tenth Amendment? Explain.

183 Amendments 11-17 Amendment 11:Explained the jurisdiction of the federal courts in cases brought by a citizen of one state against a citizen of another state (diversity jurisdiction) Amendment 12: Changed how the President and Vice President were Elected (Electoral College- running-mates not highest 2 vote-getters) Amendment 13: Abolishment of Slavery Amendment 14: Rights of Citizens and Equal Protection Under the Law Made sure that no state could make laws taking away rights that citizens have as citizens of the United States without due process Abolished the three-fifths compromise Stopped people who engaged in Civil War from holding office Debts owed by the Union in the Civil War were valid but debts owed by the Confederacy were illegal and would not be paid Amendment 15: Race Cannot Be Used in Determining Who can Vote Amendment 16: Authorized an Individual Federal Income Tax (Not Proportional to State Population) Amendment 17: Changed the Way Senators Were Elected (Senators to be Chosen by the People of a State not by State Legislatures)

184 Amendments 18-27 Amendment 18: Began Prohibition. Outlawed the Making, Selling, or Transporting of Alcohol [REPEALED BY THE 21ST AMENDMENT] Amendment 19:Gave Women the Vote Amendment 20: Established New Start Dates for Congress and the President (reduced “Lame Duck” lengths) Amendment 21: Repealed the 18th Amendment- Abolished Prohibition Amendment 22: Limited the Number of Terms for President at 2 (4-Yr Terms). The Exception is if a Vice President takes over for a President, he can finish the partial term if less than 2-years and then serve 2 additional terms for a maximum of no more than 10-years Amendment 23: Gave Washington D.C. Electors for Presidential Elections (no more than the least populous state) Amendment 24: Prohibited Poll Taxes Amendment 25: Clarified the Line of Succession of the President When the President Cannot Perform the Duties of President Amendment 26: Made the Voting Age 18 Amendment 27: Pay Increases for Congress Cannot Take Effect Until After an Election

185 Problem 25: U.S. Constitution Article II-VIIUnited States Constitution Articles II-VII. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=9 Constitution Scavenger Hunt

186 Problem 26: U.S. Constitution Amendments 1-27United States Constitution Amendments 1-27. Constitution Scavenger Hunt

187 Lesson 27 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the process of ratifying the proposed Constitution; Explain the role of state ratifying conventions in the ratification of the proposed Constitution; Explain the role of the Federalists and Anti-Federalists in the ratification debates as well as the essays that each wrote to support their views; and List, define, and provide examples for each of the Seven Constitutional Principles.

188 Ratification Debates After the Constitutional Convention:The proposed Constitution was printed, circulated, and debated. All thirteen states needed to ratify the proposed Constitution for it to be a success but it technically only needed nine of the states to ratify (approve) it in order for it to become official. Ratification would occur not in the state legislatures, but rather, in specially elected state conventions. The Federalists (those who favored ratification of the proposed Constitution): Included: George Washington, John Adams, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The Federalist Papers were a series of 85 essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay during that urged people to ratify the proposed Constitution. They argued that the Separation of Powers within the three branches would prevent against abuse of powers. Federalist No. 10- argued for a strong central government. Federalist No. 51- explained checks and balances. Federalist No. 78- explained the judicial branch. Federalists supported a strong central government as well as checks and balances to protect individual liberties. Most Federalists were wealthy, urban merchants. Most believed that a Bill of Rights in the proposed Constitution was unnecessary since the state constitutions covered individual rights. The Anti-Federalists (those who opposed ratification of the proposed Constitution): Included: Samuel Adams, John Hancock, George Clinton, Richard Henry Lee, and Patrick Henry. Anti-Federalists believed that the proposed Constitution was a threat to the sovereignty of the individual states, and without a Bill of Rights, it threatened individual liberties. Anti-Federalists also wrote essays (though they were less organized than the Federalists) that are sometimes called the Anti-Federalist Papers. Anti-Federalists supported a weaker central government and more power remaining with the states. Most Anti-Federalists were middle and lower class farmers. Most wanted Bill of Rights included.

189 Ratifying ConventionsBy mid-January, 1788, five states ratified the proposed Constitution: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut. At the Massachusetts Convention, Federalists promised that a Bill of Rights would be added to the proposed Constitution immediately after ratification. Following this promise the following states ratified the proposed Constitution as well: Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire. By early June, 1788, nine states had ratified the proposed Constitution but the nation really need Virginia and New York to ratify it if the country was to succeed. In June, 1788, Virginia narrowly ratified the Constitution; In July, 1788, New York narrowly ratified the Constitution after Alexander Hamilton (then governor) threatened that if the document was not ratified then New York City would secede from the state and become its own state); and North Carolina and Rhode Island both initially failed to ratify the Constitution but would later ratify it upon re-vote. New York City was chosen as the temporary capital and Congress convened there on March 4, 1789, in Federal Hall. James Madison proposed a Bill of Rights. 10 amendments were ratified in 1791 (the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution) to protect individual freedoms and liberties (12 were initially proposed).

190 Seven Constitutional Principles1. Republican Government- people elect their representatives in government. 2. Popular Sovereignty- all governmental power comes from the people. 3. Limited Government- the government only has the specific powers given to it from the people and listed in the Constitution. Government officials cannot take more power from the people (nobody is above the law). 4. Separation of Powers- division of powers into different branches in order to prevent a misuse of power by any one of the three branches (each has specific powers and duties). Legislative Branch- makes the laws; Executive Branch- enforces the laws; and Judicial Branch- interprets the laws. 5. Federalism- sharing of power between the national, state, and local governments. 6. Checks and Balances- built-in protections within the Constitution wherein each branch reviews and can challenge the acts of the other two branches. 7. Individual Rights- rights and liberties of the people protected by the Bill of Rights.

191 Quick Check Which of the seven principles of government is the most important and why?

192 Problem 27: Federalist No. 10James Madison, Federalist No. 10 (November 22, 1787). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=10&page=transcript What was the main point of Federalist No. 10? How did Madison support his main idea? What examples or evidence did he give? Was his support for the Federalists convincing? Was his intended audience the educated elite or the common person? Explain.

193 Problem 28: Federalist No. 51James Madison, Federalist No. 51 (February 6,1788). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=10&page=transcript What was the main point of Federalist No. 51? How did Madison support his main idea? What examples or evidence did he give? Was his description on checks and balances helpful in understanding the principle? Was his intended audience the educated elite or the common person? Explain.

194 Problem 29: Anti-Federalist PapersAnonymous (probably Samuel Bryan), Anti-Federalist “Centinel” No. 1 (Published October 5, 1787). What was the main point of Centinel No. 1? How did the author support his main idea? What examples or evidence did he give? Was his support for the Anti-Federalists convincing? Was his intended audience the educated elite or the common person? Explain.

195 Lesson 28-29 Objectives Students will be able to:Use primary sources to write an essay comparing and contrasting the various arguments made during the Constitutional Debates at the time of the ratification of the Constitution. Clearly integrate evidence from both the Federalist and Anti-Federalist points of view in writing cohesive and well-constructed essays on the topic.

196 Lesson 30 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the domestic and international challenges facing the Washington administration; List and describe the precedents set by George Washington as the First President of the U. S.; Explain the role and value of the Cabinet to a president and list the important figures who made up the first Cabinet; Describe how the new court system was established in the U.S.; Explain how Hamilton’s Plan built American credit and established the U.S. financially; Explain what the Whiskey Rebellion was and how Washington addressed it; Explain how Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality kept the U.S. out of war between Britain and France in ; Describe Jay’s Treaty and Pinkney’s Treaty; and Summarize the Washington administration’s positions on foreign relations.

197 First President: George WashingtonIn 1789, George Washington was unanimously elected as the First President of the United States and John Adams was elected as the First Vice President. The Executive Branch: At first, the executive branch was simply George Washington, John Adams, and some clerks. There were few rules to guide the new president. There were several major issues facing the new administration: courts, international relations, and a massive debt with no way to pay it. New Court System: The Constitution simply stated that there will be one Supreme Court and that Congress would create the lesser courts. As one of its first tasks, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, setting up 13 Federal District Courts (one for each state) and 3 Circuit Courts of Appeals (the Judiciary Act of 1891 created the 9 Courts of Appeals that currently exist). At the top of the court system sat the Supreme Court of the United States. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for 6 justices but after 1789 new judges were added as new territories were added to the U.S. In 1807 it increased to 7 justices. In 1837 it increased to 9 justices. In 1863 it increased to 10 justices. In 1869 the Circuit Justice Act permanently set the number at 9. Federal judges were to serve for life (so long as good behavior).

198 Quick Check Why is it a good thing that federal judges serve for life?

199 Washington’s PrecedentsPrecedents are acts or statements that become traditions to be followed in the future. George Washington knew that everything he did would be watched, scrutinized, and followed by future presidents so he was careful when he acted as the first president. Some of the most famous precedents set by George Washington: Leaving after two terms in office; A foreign policy of neutrality; Establishing a Cabinet of advisors; Building a strong national government that demanded the respect of the people of the U.S. and foreigners; Ceremonial duties such as saying “so help me God” in the presidential oath, being called “Mr. President,” and giving formal addresses to Congress; and Setting responsible fiscal policies for the country. Creating a Cabinet: Washington established the best Cabinet in American history. His Cabinet Secretaries (a group close advisors to the president who each head one of the nation’s federal departments) were chosen because of their intelligence and expertise and not simply because they would do whatever the president asked them to do. In fact, his first cabinet contained individuals of varying opinions on important governmental matters. His cabinet consisted of: Thomas Jefferson- Secretary of State; Alexander Hamilton- Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Knox- Secretary of War; and Edmund Randolph- Attorney General.

200 Hamilton’s Financial PlanReduce the Nation’s Debt: By 1789, the U.S. was $52 million in debt and combined state debts amounted to $25 million. Hamilton believed that the debt that was owed by the U.S. could be turned into a positive for the nation. He had a plan to not only reduce the nation’s debt, but also to build international credit for the nation. To Build Credit: Hamilton proposed that the federal government adopt (take on) all of the state debts that were owed and add them to the U.S. debts. Then, he proposed paying off the large debt over time, thereby showing the world that the U.S. pays its bills and can be trusted. This, he believed, would build national credit. The South disagreed with Hamilton’s plan to assume the state debts because nearly all of the state debt was owed by the North. The southern states had far less debt, and in most cases, had already paid it off. In order to appeal to the South, a compromise was reached. Accept Hamilton’s Plan and the nation’s capital would be moved to the South within 10- years and would be named for George Washington (Washington, District of Columbia). The South agreed to the Compromise, and Hamilton’s plan to build international credit was a success. To Pay Off the Debt: Hamilton proposed that the federal government sell western lands and sell government bonds. To pay the interest on government bonds, Hamilton proposed an increase in taxes and high tariffs on imported goods. He also proposed creating a national bank, the Bank of the United States, to manage the nation’s money. Success of Hamilton’s Plan: With the compromise, both the South and the North benefitted, the nation built credit in the international community, and the war debts were paid off. The South gained the nation’s capital; the North benefitted from increased trade and business as well as the reduction of its debt. The wealthy northerners who benefitted financially contributed to the growing economy by reinvesting much of their money in business. Failures of Hamilton’s Plan: It made speculators very rich because the government paid off all debts (even those purchased for as little as 20 cents on the dollar by speculators). It made wealthy northern business owners even wealthier at the expense of poor southern farmers who saw an increase in taxes, and due to the high tariff, an increase in the cost of goods for purchase as well.

201 Quick Check Was Hamilton’s financial plan a success or a failure? Explain.

202 Domestic Problems in the New NationWhiskey Rebellion: Poor rural farmers in western Pennsylvania, who distilled grain into whiskey locally, refused to pay a new federal excise (luxury) tax on whiskey and other alcohol passed by Congress. Farmers protested, attacked tax collectors, and led a small armed rebellion in protest of the new tax, chanting “no taxation without representation.” Washington raised a 12,000-man militia to march into western Pennsylvania and crush the rebellion by force, if necessary. When the troops arrived they arrested 20 people but found little resistance. Most people had dispersed when they saw the troops. Only two of those arrested were convicted of causing the rebellion. Washington’s response showed the country that the new national government was one that demanded respect. It also showed the people the difference between taxes passed by Parliament 3,000 miles away and taxes passed by those whom they elected in Congress. Division into Political Parties: The Founding Fathers, and especially George Washington, wanted to avoid the division of the nation into political parties (groups who attempt to gain public office and shape government policy). They feared that political parties threatened the unity of the republic. It was too late. The country split into two new political parties: the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans. Federalists (those who agreed with Alexander Hamilton and John Adams): Mostly wealthy northerners and industrial-minded men and merchants who favored a strong central government. Democratic-Republicans (Republicans for short) (those who agreed with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison): Mostly southerners and common people who believed that the nation’s economy should be based on agriculture and more power held by the states instead of the national government. There were men of both parties in every region, state, community, and social class. At first the Federalists won most of the elections, but as time passed, the Republicans gained power.

203 International Problems for the New NationNorthwest Territories & the Northwest Indian War: The British continued to maintain their military forts on American soil in the Northwest Territories (between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes) and they began to arm and incite Native Americans to attack American settlements in the region as a way to deter western expansion. 1790 attack by Little Turtle who defeated U.S. troops in the Ohio Country starting the “Northwest Indian War” or “Little Turtle’s War.” 1791 Little Turtle and Blue Jacket defeated U.S troops near the Wabash River (623 U.S. troops were killed and 258 were wounded). 1794 General Anthony Wayne finally defeated the native confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers and the natives were forced to sign a peace treaty ending hostilities. In the peace treaty, the Native Americans gave up their remaining territory in the Ohio River Valley to the U.S. 1789 French Revolution: Many Americans were initially excited that the French people rose up against their king, much as the Americans had done so in the American Revolution. Many wanted the U.S. to side with the French rebels and honor the alliance made when America was at war against Great Britain. By 1793, the French Revolution turned very bloody: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were both beheaded by guillotine; Thousands of aristocrats were beheaded by guillotine; Thousands of clergy were beheaded by guillotine; Anyone who disagreed with the new republic were at risk of death as well. In 1793, France resumed its war against Britain and other European monarchies and asked the U.S. for assistance. George Washington responded to the French with his Proclamation of Neutrality, whereby the U.S. would not involve itself in European Wars. Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality became a precedent that would be followed by the United States until World War I in April 1917.

204 Jay’s Treaty & Pinkney’s TreatyIn 1794, the U.S. and Great Britain were on the verge of war again. Britain had been arming and inciting natives in the Ohio Country; It maintained its military forts on American soil in the west; It had begun a policy of kidnapping American sailors on the high seas and forcing them to fight for the British navy, called impressment; and It had continued enforcing its Navigation Acts, making trade with Britain and its Colonies very difficult for Americans. To avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, John Jay, to negotiate with Britain. Jay’s Treaty- eventually Jay and Britain came to terms in order to avoid war and signed the Jay’s Treaty: British gave up military forts on American soil (but not in the disputed western territory); British continued to enforce the Navigation Acts with respect to American trade; and America was forced to pay all of its pre-war debt owed to Britain. Jay’s Treaty avoided war but was not terribly favorable to the U.S. It narrowly passed ratification by the Congress but Republicans believed that it was a “sell out” to Britain by the Federalists. Pinkney’s Treaty: In 1795, Washington sent Charles Pinkney to Spain to negotiate peace. Spain began restricting American use of the Mississippi River and the Port of New Orleans because it feared American expansion into the west as a threat against its Colonies in Louisiana and Mexico. Pinkney’s Treaty avoided war; and Spain agreed to continue to allow Americans to use the Mississippi River and trade in New Orleans.

205 Quick Check How did George Washington handle domestic (in the U.S.) and international problems? Explain the difference in how he handled the two.

206 Lesson 31 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the foreign and domestic issues facing the Adams administration; Explain how Adams kept the U.S. out of war against France; Describe the XYZ Affair and Adams’s preparations in case the negotiations with France failed; List and explain the impact of each of the Alien & Sedition Acts; and Describe the Election of 1800 and the election of Thomas Jefferson.

207 Problem 30: Washington’s Farewell AddressGeorge Washington, Farewell Address (September 19, 1793). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=15&page=transcript What reasons does George Washington give for stepping down after his second term as President of the U.S.? What advice does Washington give to the country going forward? Does Washington’s advice still hold true today?

208 Second President: John AdamsWashington’s Farewell Address: Washington stepped down after his second term in office, encouraging other presidents to do likewise, and peacefully transferred power to his successor. On September 19, 1793, Washington gave his Farewell Address, giving advice to future leaders of the U.S. With his ailing health, Washington retired to his home at Mount Vernon, Virginia, where he lived until his death on December 14, 1799. Election of John Adams: John Adams, the First Vice President of the U.S. was narrowly elected as the Second President. Adams won 71 electoral votes to Thomas Jefferson’s 68. As runner-up, Thomas Jefferson became the Second Vice President. Personality soon became a problem for John Adams. He made few friends with people while in office. Many viewed him as cantankerous, stubborn, and pompous. John Adams’s presidency had few highlights: He was the father of the U.S. Navy. Adams founded the Navy in 1798 and added a Cabinet post in the process, naming Benjamin Stoddert as Secretary of the Navy. Historians remember Adams’s presidency for two unfortunate events, which most likely cost Adams his re- election in 1800.

209 XYZ Affair XYZ Affair: After Jay’s Treaty with Great Britain, France became outraged and felt betrayed by the U.S. France was also upset with the fact that the U.S. did not honor its alliance in France’s war against Britain. In 1796, the French began seizing American ships on the open seas. In 1798, an undeclared naval “Quasi- War” with France occurred. There was a real danger that the naval disputes would turn into a land invasion by the powerful French army. Adams began to build up the Army again and put George Washington back in command, with Alexander Hamilton as his second in command (really Hamilton was in charge due to Washington’s advanced age). Adams also pushed through the only Congressional tax on property ever in American history in order to build revenue for the conflict. This sparked a brief armed rebellion among western Pennsylvania’s German-speaking farmers called Fries’s Rebellion. In 1799, Adams sent diplomats, Charles Pinkney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry, to France in order to engage in peace talks and to de-escalate the conflict. Under France’s Finance Minister Talleyrand, the French diplomats immediately demanded a bribe and loan in order to commence negotiations. The demand for money in order to negotiate was customary in France and in Europe at the time, but it outraged America. The scandal was called the XYZ Affair after the French diplomats X (Hottinguer), Y (Bellamy), and Z (Hauteval) who demanded the bribe. Eventually Elbridge Gerry negotiated peace with France (nearly a year later) and John Adams avoided war against France.

210 Alien & Sedition Acts Tensions in America grew between some Republicans and the Federalists. Talk of secession and even overthrow of the government began to circulate. Some people even suspected French influence and infiltration into America as the cause of the unrest. The Federalists in Congress became defensive when faced with threats to the government, the president, and the American republic. The government was in a state of suspicion and paranoia. To help prevent threats to America and the nation from becoming a realty, Federalists in Congress passed a series of measures to protect the government against the influence of seditious foreigners in America. The Alien & Sedition Acts- series of laws passed to protect the American government against dissention. Adams signed the acts into law in Alien Act- allowed the president to deport any foreigner, whom he considered dangerous to the country. Sedition Act- made it a crime to publish “false, scandalous, and malicious writing” against the government or its officials. Naturalization Act- increased residency requirement to 14-years for foreigners applying for citizenship. Although Adams did not promote any of the Alien & Sedition Acts, he signed them all into law. Yet he also did not use the acts frequently. Alien Act- Adams did not sign a single deportation order. Sedition Act- 14 indictments but only 10 convictions (mostly politically motivated- which alarmed Republicans). Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions: The Republicans responded by passing the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, declaring the Acts unconstitutional. The Resolutions stated that the states could nullify, or legally overturn, any federal law that was unconstitutional. The Election of 1800 was close, but in the end, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied with 73 votes each (Adams had 65 and ended in third place). The Republicans intended for Jefferson to win the presidency and Burr to win the Vice Presidency but because they were on the same ballot, they each received 73 votes. The method for electing presidents under the Constitution (with the top vote getter as President and the runner up as Vice President) was clearly flawed. It would be changed by the Twelfth Amendment in 1804. Because of the tie in the Electoral College (and neither candidate receiving a majority), the House of Representatives was called upon to break the tie. The House re-voted 35 times and it was still tied. On the 36th vote, Alexander Hamilton withheld his vote for Aaron Burr and Jefferson became the Third President of the U.S.

211 Quick Check Did John Adams deserve the criticisms that he received from his presidency? Was he responsible for the XYZ Affair and Alien & Sedition Acts? Explain.

212 Problem 31: Alien & Sedition ActsAlien & Sedition Acts of Congress (June 25, 1798 to July 14, 1798). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=16&page=transcript Were the Alien & Sedition Acts drafted with good intentions for the country? What was most troubling about the Alien & Sedition Acts? Do you believe that the Alien & Sedition Acts were constitutional or not? Explain. Have any other laws passed since 1798 resembled the Alien & Sedition Acts? If so, which ones? Explain.

213 Lesson 32 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the challenges facing the presidency of Thomas Jefferson; Describe the political and economic changes that Jefferson made as soon as he became president; Explain the foreign policy issues facing President Jefferson and how he dealt with them; Describe the Barbary War, its causes, and effects; Explain how Jefferson kept the U.S. out of war with Great Britain and France during his presidency; Describe the trade restrictions Congress passed during Jefferson’s presidency with the Non-Intercourse Act and the Embargo Act; Explain how Chief Justice John Marshall’s ruling in the case of Marbury v. Madison shaped the role of the Supreme Court and established the principle of Judicial Review; and Explain how Jefferson was able to make the Louisiana Purchase and its significance for the future of the U.S.

214 Economic & Political Changes With JeffersonThomas Jefferson’s Economic Reform- when Thomas Jefferson took the presidency he immediately downsized the government. He: Cut taxes (stamps, alcohol, and property taxes); Cut national spending; Cut government jobs and streamlined government bureaucracy; Cut the military (army and navy); and Increased the sale of western land as a means of making money for the government. Politically- Jefferson appealed to the common man (he did not conspicuously display his wealth or social status). Jefferson delivered his inaugural address in regular clothes. He favored a smaller government and feared that government threatened personal liberties. He also favored a policy known as laissez-faire (let it be- let the people decide).

215 Marbury v. Madison Judicial Changes: Judicial Review Process:In 1801, just before leaving office, President John Adams made a number of judicial appointments (“midnight judges”) under the Judiciary Act of 1789. One of the appointees was William Marbury, who he appointed to be a judge in Washington, D.C. Unfortunately for Marbury, Jefferson took the presidency before his appointment papers had been delivered. Jefferson immediately informed his Secretary of State, James Madison, to stop delivering appointment letters. Marbury sued to the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall wrote the opinion for the court. He wrote: (1) The Constitution is the Supreme Law of the U.S.; (2) The Constitution is to be followed if any other law conflicts with it; and (3) The judicial branch (specifically the Supreme Court) has the job of determining the constitutionality of laws (whether or not they follow the Constitution). He ruled in favor of Madison by declaring a portion of the Judiciary Act of 1789 to be “unconstitutional.” Therefore. Marbury did not get his appointment. Judicial Review: Marshall went on to explain that the proper role of the Supreme Court (which was not spelled out in the Constitution) was to hear cases concerning whether or not certain laws follow the Constitution. This principle became known as Judicial Review. Judicial Review Process: 1. A lower court ruling is appealed to the Supreme Court, challenging the constitutionality of a law. 2. The Supreme Court justices review the appeal and vote on whether or not to actually hear the case. 3. If 4 out of the 9 justices agree to review the case, the Supreme Court orders the case records (Writ of Certiorari). 4. Then the petitioner submits a legal brief outlining the legal challenges to the constitutionality of related laws; the respondent also submits a legal brief defending the constitutionality; then the Supreme Court hears oral arguments from both sides; 5. The Supreme Court debates and votes on the case during a Justices’ Conference. 6. If the majority of the justices vote for the petitioner, the law or statute is held unconstitutional and held void by the ruling.

216 Quick Check Explain the role of federal courts in the U.S.Wouldn’t judicial review be more efficient if the Supreme Court just voted on the constitutionality of every Act of Congress before it went into effect? Explain the pros and cons of this suggestion.

217 Saint-Domingue & The Louisiana TerritoryIn 1801, Spain stopped letting Americans travel on the Mississippi River and use the port of New Orleans. It was secretly transferring the Louisiana Territory to France in exchange for a European principality called Etruria. Napoleon Bonaparte, France’s military dictator, needed the Louisiana Territory. He needed it in order to supply his wealthy colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), which used slave labor to produce sugar on plantations. The sugar crop was vital to the French economy and made France very wealthy. The Louisiana Territory would supply Saint-Domingue with natural resources so that all of Saint-Domingue’s land could be dedicated to sugar production. The only problem was that the slaves on Saint-Domingue began to revolt against their masters. Slave Revolt on Saint-Domingue: In 1791, the slaves of Saint-Domingue began to revolt against their masters in a rebellion led by a former slave, Toussaint L’Ouverture. While the rebellion was slow at first, it soon picked up; by 1803, the French were losing the war. The French ended up losing the war in what became known as the “Haitian Revolution” for three reasons: 1. Slaves became increasingly aggressive and brutal; 2. French soldiers died in high numbers due to mosquito-borne diseases, especially Yellow fever (for which the slaves were immune); and 3. French reinforcements failed to arrive due to frozen ports in Holland and the British naval blockade. By 1803, Napoleon had essentially lost the war on Saint-Domingue, and therefore, lost his key colony in the west. Without Saint-Domingue, Napoleon had little need for the Louisiana Territory but he had a great need for money to help fund his war against Great Britain.

218 Louisiana Purchase In 1803, Thomas Jefferson offered to buy the port of New Orleans from Napoleon. Jefferson believed that the Constitution must be followed strictly. He doubted that a president could purchase land from a foreign nation according to the Constitution because there was no provision that permitted it. He did it anyway even though he knew it was unconstitutional. Jefferson wanted New Orleans from France for three reasons: 1. He wanted to avoid conflict and war with France over the use of the port of New Orleans; 2. He wanted the port of New Orleans to ensure American trade there and use of the Mississippi River; and 3. He wanted to increase western land for sale to settlers in order to build farms. Negotiations: In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe and Robert Livingstone to France to negotiate for the purchase of the City of New Orleans for $10 million. Instead of discussing New Orleans, France’s Finance Minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand offered to sell all of the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. for $20 million. In the end, a price of $15 million was agreed upon for the U.S. purchase of the entire Louisiana Territory. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the U.S. (828,000 square miles) for $15 million. Although probably unconstitutional, the purchase was quickly ratified by Congress. In 1804, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore and map out the vast Louisiana Territory. The crew consisted of expert river men, gunsmiths, carpenters, scouts, a cook, 2 native and French translators, and a slave named York. Lewis and Clark left St. Louis in 1804 and kept a detailed journal with notes about their discoveries along the 4,000 mile journey to the Pacific and back. Along the way, a Shoshone chief gave his daughter Sacagawea to the men. She was a valuable asset to the group for her knowledge of the land, language abilities, and for relations with natives that they encountered. Zebulun Pike Jefferson also sent other expeditions westward. In 1805 and 1807 Zebulon Pike explored the land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. He learned a great deal about the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, and the Río Grande Region.

219 Quick Check Can we fault Jefferson for making the Louisiana Purchase because it was likely unconstitutional and violated his beliefs about strictly following the Constitution? Why were York and Sacagawea the most important members of the Lewis and Clark expedition?

220 Jefferson & Conflict In EuropeThe Barbary War: In 1801, pirates from the kingdoms of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli (in the Mediterranean Sea off of the coast of Africa) began seizing American trading vessels and demanding the payment of money to guarantee “safe passage.” In 1801, after the U.S. refused to pay a safe passage bribe to the pirates, war broke out. The war lasted until 1805, when the U.S. finally defeated the pirates in naval battle. Negotiations with the leaders of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli resulted in the guarantee that American vessels would be granted safe passage, but the U.S. also agreed to certain loans of money to those kingdoms as part of the peace agreement. War between Great Britain & France: Foreign conflict with Great Britain: War once again raged between rivals Great Britain and France. The U.S. wanted to trade with both counties and export its food surpluses and supplies in order to boost the American economy. Trade, in fact, significantly improved the U.S. economy and helped shippers, merchants, and farmers across the U.S. But in 1805, the British began seizing U.S. ships again and impressing U.S. sailors into the British navy (claiming that the sailors were deserters from the British navy). A good number of those impressed were, in fact, American-born citizens. By 1807, thousands of American-born sailors were impressed by the British navy and the British even fired upon the neutral American vessel, the Chesapeake. To make matters worse, the British continued to arm Native Americans and encourage them to attack U.S. settlements in the Ohio Country. Many Americans called for war against Great Britain.

221 Embargo Act & Non-Intercourse ActWar Between Great Britain & France: Foreign conflict with France: To make matters worse for the U.S., France also began seizing American shipping to British ports. It also began a blockade to prevent the U.S. from trading with its enemy, Great Britain. Embargo Act (1807): To avoid getting involved in the Napoleonic Wars between Great Britain or France, Jefferson pushed a bill through Congress to outlaw trading with foreign nations. The Embargo Act did little good and only hurt the U.S. economy. Non-Intercourse Act (1809): Realizing the failure of the Embargo Act, Jefferson pushed a new bill through Congress called the Non-Intercourse Act, which removed American trade restrictions on whichever nation (Great Britain or France) removed its restrictions on the U.S. first and recognized American neutrality. France did so and trade restrictions were placed against Great Britain. Unfortunately, the trade restrictions did not hurt the British. Great Britain simply traded with Latin America for the food and supplies it needed instead of the U.S. But it pushed the U.S. to the brink of war against Great Britain. Jefferson’s foreign policy was a miserable failure and crippled the American economy. In 1808, Secretary of State James Madison was elected the Fourth President of the United States.

222 Quick Check Did Jefferson’s failure in terms of international relations make him a bad president? Explain.

223 Problem 32: Marbury v. MadisonJohn Marshall, Marbury v. Madison (1803). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=19&page=transcript What was the court’s ruling according to Chief Justice John Marshall’s opinion in the case of Marbury v. Madison? Did the court create a new power for itself from the ruling in this case? If so, how could it do that?

224 Problem 33: Louis & Clark ExpeditionThomas Jefferson, Confidential Correspondence: Lewis & Clark Expedition (January 18, 1803). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=17&page=transcript What did Thomas Jefferson authorize in his letter? What was the goals of the Lewis and Clark expedition? Why was this a confidential (or secret) letter?

225 Lesson 33 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain why Napoleon was willing to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States; Explain the Constitutional challenge to the Louisiana Purchase faced by Jefferson; and Explain the role of secret codes, intrigue, and posturing in international diplomacy.

226 Problem 34: Jefferson’s Secret CodesThomas Jefferson, Confidential Correspondence: Lewis & Clark Expedition (January 18, 1803). https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=17&page=transcript Crack the code in the letter and re-write it in un-coded English. Why did Jefferson put this letter in code?

227 Lesson 34 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the challenges facing the presidency of James Madison; Explain the causes of and results of the War of 1812; Explain why the War Hawks in Congress pushed for war against Great Britain and how the U.S. was not prepared for such a war; Explain the reasons for the British burning of Washington, D.C.’s government buildings; and Explain the Battle of Fort McHenry and how Francis Scott Key came to write the Star Spangled Banner.

228 Fourth President: James MadisonNative American troubles continue. In 1811, the Shawnee warrior, Tecumseh actively looked for native warriors to launch an allied attack against American settlers in the west. Governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison led troops into Prophetstown along the Tippecanoe River and launched an attack. Although the preemptive strike by Harrison deterred some natives from further attacks, most natives escaped to fight another day. Republican War Hawks in Congress pushed for war against Great Britain. Nationalistic, the War Hawks believed that if the U.S. could seize Canada, the U.S. could dictate trade terms with Great Britain, impressments would end, and native attacks would decrease without British instigation and arms. In June of 1812, James Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against Great Britain. The War of 1812 would dominate Madison’s presidency. Although the war divided the country, Madison easily won a second term as president. War of 1812 Begins: Americans initially believed that the conquest of Canada would be a mere “matter of mere marching” but quickly found out that the British would prove to be a difficult foe. In 1812 and 1813, the U.S was repeatedly defeated along the Canadian border including the Battle of Detroit and most of the Michigan Territory. The U.S. army and navy were not prepared for war in The army consisted of 12,000 trained soldiers and the navy only had 13 warships at the time. Instead, Congress relied heavily on untrained state militiamen to fight the war. The results were disastrous. Many militiamen simply ran away when they were attacked. American Navy: Surprisingly the U.S. Navy performed better than expected. In 1813, Commodore Oliver “Hazard” Perry defeated a British flotilla on Lake Erie, allowing U.S. ground troops under William Henry Harrison to re- take Detroit from the British. On April 28, 1813, U.S. forces burned the Legislative Assembly in York (present-day Toronto), Canada and carried out various acts of plunder against the British. In early 1814, Britain finally defeated Napoleon and the French in the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. Britain was then able to send additional troops to fight the U.S. in North America. The U.S. now became the sole focus of the British Empire and revenge was the priority.

229 Quick Check Was the War of 1812 justified?Should war have been declared against Great Britain?

230 War of 1812 Success against Native Americans: Tide of the War Changes:In October of 1813, William Henry Harrison’s army killed Tecumseh and his followers became disorganized and weakened. In March 27, 1814, General Andrew Jackson invaded and defeated the Red Sticks, a Creek group living in Alabama. The Creek allied themselves with the British. At the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, Jackson’s men killed 550 Creek men, women, and children. On August 9, 1814, the Creek Nation signed the Treaty of Fort Jackson and gave up 23 million acres of land. Andrew Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Seminoles and seizing the Spanish Fort at Pensacola. Tide of the War Changes: After defeating Napoleonic France, the British brought thousands of troops to the U.S. in four places: eastern Maine, on the Canadian border between Montreal and northern New York State, the Gulf of Mexico, and Maryland. Of these four locations, the British only succeeded in Maine against a weak militia. Battle of Fort McHenry: On August 24, 1814, the British sailed up the Chesapeake, quickly overpowered the Americans, marched to Washington, D.C., and burned it in retaliation for the burning of York, Canada (fortunately a thunderstorm extinguished the flames but the capital was destroyed). After burning Washington, the British sailed to Baltimore. The British faced off against the Americans at Fort McHenry where the Americans defended and defeated the British bombardment. The Great Lakes: The British also lost on the shores of Lake Champlain in September, 1814, and soon realized that the war was too costly and unnecessary. New Orleans: Andrew Jackson put together a motley crew to defend the City of New Orleans. From regular army, state militia, free blacks, slaves, merchant sailors, and even pirates under Jean Lafitte, Jackson’s men defended the city bravely. Ironically, the battle occurred after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, officially ending the War of 1812.

231 Fort McHenry & The Star Spangled BannerFlags: In 1813, Major George Armistead commissioned Mary Pickersgill of Baltimore to make two flags for the fort. The first flag, the garrison flag, was 30 x 42 feet in size and cost the government $ It was created so large that the “British would have no trouble seeing it.” The other flag, the storm flag, measured 17 x 25 feet and cost the government $ Ironically, during the Battle of Fort McHenry, it was the smaller storm flag that flew; however, by morning, Armistead ordered the large garrison flag be hoisted into place. That was the flag that Francis Scott Key saw in the dawn’s early light. In the weeks before the Battle of Fort McHenry, in Baltimore Harbor, the citizens of Baltimore prepared for the invasion: Several merchants voluntarily sank their own ships to create a reef blocking the harbor. Everyone pitched in to dig defensive earthworks and trenches. On the evening of the bombardment of the fort, the people of Baltimore extinguished all candles and sat quietly to prevent giving away key locations. The Star Spangled Banner: Francis Scott Key was a Baltimore lawyer who was sent to the British fleet on the day before the Battle of Fort McHenry to negotiate the release of Dr. William Beanes, an elderly Baltimore physician. Unfortunately, he arrived right before the start of the bombardment. That evening he dined with the British negotiator John Stuart Skinner aboard the HMS Tonnant. The next morning, after an evening of bombardment, Key witnessed the large garrison flag still flying over the American fort and was inspired to write a poem, which he called the Defence of Fort McHenry. Key’s poem was later put to the tune of a British drinking song, To Anacreon in Heaven. It wasn't until 1931 that it was officially made the National Anthem by President Herbert Hoover. At the end of the Battle, the Americans were victorious. The flag was still there, proving that the U.S. survived the British bombardment.

232 Results of the War of 1812 The Treaty of Ghent:Both sides agreed in the uselessness of continuing the War of There was no clear victor. Instead, both sides agreed to a peace treaty to end the war. Provisions: Restored pre-war boundary lines between the U.S. and Canada and agreed to establish a committee to discuss boundary disputes at a later time. It did not address the issue of impressments (now a moot point) or American neutrality. Americans at the time believed that Jackson’s victory at New Orleans forced the British to sign the Treaty of Ghent, and therefore, America was the winner. We now know that the victory at New Orleans came after the Treaty of Ghent was signed. Nationalism & Confidence: One positive from the war was a strong sense of nationalism and confidence across the U.S. America successfully defended its independence and weathered a difficult war. The success of the war also destroyed the Federalist Party that had opposed the war from the beginning. Hartford Convention- Federalists from New England met in Hartford, Connecticut in December of 1814 to discuss seceding from the U.S. and making a separate peace with Britain. Instead of seceding they made demands on Madison in the form of constitutional amendments but they arrived just as news of Jackson’s victory at New Orleans arrived and Madison ignored them. Native American lands became new states after the War of 1812: Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), and Alabama (1819). In 1818, Andrew Jackson invaded Western Florida at the time of the First Seminole War (without Madison’s permission) due to lawlessness in the region. The Spanish did nothing to prevent Seminoles from crossing the border and invading. In addition, Spain did not stop two British men from giving guns and inciting the Seminole in Florida. Taking matters into his own hands, Jackson invaded Spanish Western Florida, arrested the two British inciters, and executed them. Adams-Onís Treaty- On the verge of a three-way international crisis, John Quincy Adams negotiated with the Spanish in 1819, which decided to cede all of Florida to the U.S. in exchange for the U.S. giving up its claims to Texas.

233 Quick Check Did the U.S. win the War of 1812? Was it a successful war? Explain.

234 Problem 35: Star Spangled BannerFrancis Scott Key, Star Spangled Banner (September 14, 1814). Which parts of the Star Spangled clearly reflect the Battle of Fort McHenry? Why was the flag the focus of Key’s attention while he was in Baltimore Harbor that night?

235 Lesson 35-36 Objectives Students will be able to:Use primary sources to write an essay explaining what forces led America to declare war on Britain in 1812. Clearly integrate evidence from the primary sources in writing a cohesive and well-constructed essay on the topic.

236 Lesson Objectives Lesson 37: Review- Students will review and refine their understandings of the unit content objectives. Lesson 38: Unit Test- Students will demonstrate understanding of the unit objectives through a unit test.

237 United States History IUnit III: Age of Jackson, Sectionalism, & Conflict

238 Lesson 39 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how the Industrial Revolution arrived in America and why it took hold in New England; Explain the social aspects of the Industrial Revolution and how it changed life in the North; Describe the new transportation and agricultural innovations in the early 1800s; Describe the Northern factory workers and what their lives were like; Describe the shift to cotton production in the South after the invention of the cotton gin; Explain why southern whites supported slavery despite the fact that very few owned slaves; Explain why agriculture, and particularly cotton, became the way of life in the South; and Explain the consequences of the South’s mono-crop system.

239 Industrial Changes Old transportation methods:Carts, wagons, sleighs, and stagecoaches- all drawn by horses or oxen over dirt roads. New transportation methods: Turnpikes- roads created and maintained by private companies that charged travelers a toll in order to use them. The National Road- made of crushed rock and completed in 1818; this federally funded road extended west from Maryland to the Ohio River. Steamboats- the first commercially successful steamboat was created by Robert Fulton in 1807 and called the North River Steamboat or simply the Clermont. The Clermont made the 150-mile trip from New York City to Albany in 32-hours. Steamboats opened up the Mississippi River for people and goods in a fraction of the time it otherwise would have taken. By 1850, the first trans-Atlantic steamships crossed the Atlantic in days. Canals- provided efficient water transportation through a series of locks. In 1825, the 363-mile Erie Canal connected the Hudson River and Lake Erie (price to transport goods went from $100 to $4). The Erie Canal transported western produce to the East and New York City became the nation’s greatest commercial port. By , the population grew to 800,000 inhabitants (in 1820, it had only 124,000 people). By 1850, there were 3,600-miles of canals in the U.S. Railroads- first appeared in the 1820s and were originally horse-drawn. By the late 1830s, steam powered railroads could move heavier loads, longer distances, and faster. miles of track. ,000-miles of track.

240 Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution- shift from manual labor to mechanized work that began in Great Britain during the 1700s and spread to the U.S. around 1800. Shift from human or animal power to water power. Slater’s Mill: Great Britain had strict laws preventing its technology and machines from being reproduced elsewhere. In 1793, Samuel Slater (who had memorized British machines) set up the first water-powered mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island on the Blackstone River. The machinery spun cotton into thread. Eventually, more mills popped up throughout New England. Whole families (men, women, and children) often found employment in the mills and lived in mill housing. Lowell: Francis Cabot Lowell transformed mills even further by bringing all of the steps in the process of making cloth under one factory roof. His first mill was in Waltham in 1813. In the 1820s, Lowell built several mills on the Merrimack River and establish the city of Lowell. His employees recruited single girls and women to work in the factories called “Mill Girls,” who were required to follow strict rules and lived in closely supervised boardinghouses. Mills changed workers’ lives: Machines increased the pace of work and divided work into smaller tasks. People began to specialize in one task. Workers did not have to be highly skilled to do one task. Mill owners could pay less, but demand for mill jobs was high. Garment & Shoe Industries- poor women (who worked for $1/week) assembled and sewed cloth into clothing for the first time in New York City and leather into shoes in Lynn, Massachusetts. This was the first time finished products became readily available for purchase to the public.

241 Innovations in AgricultureInterchangeable Parts- to improve efficiency in factories, products were designed and manufactured with identical components that could be used in place of one another. This idea was introduced by Eli Whitney (of Westborough, Massachusetts). Instead of custom parts for each individual product- each part of a product would be separately and precisely manufactured and then assembled later. The sewing machine was invented by Elias Howe in 1846 (from Spencer, Massachusetts) and improved by Isaac Singer in 1850 and used interchangeable parts, which drastically increased clothing manufacturing (900-stitch per minute). Morse Code: In 1836, Samuel F. B. Morse invented an electric telegraph capable of sending and receiving messages by electric pulses (dots and dashes), which were coded messages. By 1860, there were 50,000 miles of telegraph lines. Increase in Agricultural Production: By 1815, farmers only sold 1/3 of their harvests. By 1860, they sold 2/3. Grains came mostly from the Midwest. 1837- John Deere invented the steel tipped plow. 1831- Cyrus McCormick invented the mechanical reaper.

242 Quick Check How did the Industrial Revolution change the U.S.?

243 Industrial North Origin of Industrialization: Skilled workers suffer:The embargo and war against Great Britain in the early 1800s meant that the U.S. was cut off from British manufactured goods. Many wanted to develop U.S. industries in New England to lessen the dependence on foreign trade. After the War of 1812, Congress passed the Tariff of 1816 (high tax on imports) to protect the new U.S. industry from international competition. Tariff helped industries but hurt farmers and the poor who had to pay higher prices regardless. Why Industry in New England? Access to (1) large amounts of capital; access to (2) rivers; access to (3) cheap labor; (4) proximity to natural resources; and southern land and climate favored agriculture. Skilled workers suffer: Mill work required cheap and unskilled labor. Skilled artisans (blacksmiths, shoemakers, tailors, etc.) could not compete with the mills and suffered lower wages. Labor Unions: Groups of workers united for better working conditions, better pay, and legal protections for workers. Early labor unions focused on helping the skilled tradesmen. Mill Girls went on strike for better wages in Lowell in 1834 and again in 1836. Expansion of the Middle Class: Bankers, lawyers, accountants, clerks, auctioneers, brokers, and retailers (most worked in offices outside of the home). The middle class also began to move to the suburbs (away from the crowds, noise, and smells of the cities) and women stayed at home. Neighborhoods became segregated by class and race. Immigrants flooded the poorest sections of the cities looking for work. All family members looked for work to contribute to the family. Immigrants (mostly Irish and Germans) surged. 1830s- 600,000; 1840s- 1,500,000; and 1850s 2,800,000. ,500,000 immigrants. Many of the new immigrants were Catholic or Jewish. Irish- came in 1840s as a result of starvation during the potato famine (1,500,000). Germans- came due to political unrest (1,400,000). Nativists (Know Nothing Party)- promoted “native” Americans and discriminated against Catholics, Jews, and immigrants.

244 Agricultural South “King” Cotton: Southern Dependence on Cotton:In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin with the intention of helping the slaves. The cotton gin machine reduced the amount of time it took to pick cotton seeds from the valuable white fibers. It made cotton more valuable and cultivation of cotton more profitable. million pounds produced; million pounds produced. New cotton plantations popped up all over the South but especially in the new states of Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Demand for cotton from northern textile mills increased drastically as the Industrial Revolution took hold. Increase in Slavery: In 1808, the African slave trade was abolished but illegal trade and interstate trade filled the gaps. Slaves became more valuable to owners. Owners needed more slaves to produce more cotton and make more money. million slaves; million. Southern Dependence on Cotton: Most of the time southern dependence on the single crop of cotton paid off. Sometimes prices for cotton dipped and put planters in financial failure. The South had few cities (only New Orleans ranked in the top 15 in population in 1860) and few commercial towns. Attracting few immigrants, the South did not grow nearly as fast as the North. By 1850, the North had twice the free population that the South did. Consequently, the North’s political power increased. Cultural Consequences of Slavery: Slaves and poor whites were kept poor and uneducated (white illiteracy in the South- 15%). Slaveholders were a minority. Fewer than 25% owned slaves. Approximately 5% owned more than 10 slaves. Only 3,000 men owned slaves or more. Most Southerners were poor yeomen farmers who did not own any slaves and some did not even own their own land. Common white men dreamed of one day owning a plantation with vast numbers of slaves. They also believed that blacks were inferior. Poor whites believed they shared a racial bond with wealthy plantation owners. They admired the independence that came with not having to work. Southerners argued that slavery was kinder to the slave than industrial life was to poor white workers in the North.

245 Quick Check How did the economy of the North differ from the economy of the South after the War of 1812?

246 Problem 36: Mill Girls Harriet H. Robinson, "Early Factory Labor in New England," in Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Fourteenth Annual Report (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1883), pp. 380­82, 387­88, 391­92. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/robinson-lowell.asp Describe what life was like for the mill girls according to the author. Was a mill girl able to spend her money any way that she wished? Was this fair? Explain. If you were forced to choose to either be a mill girl or work at the family farm, what would you choose and why?

247 Lesson 40 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe politics during the “Era of Good Feelings”; Explain how the Marshall Court increased federal power through judicial rulings; Explain the American System and protective tariffs; Explain the significance of the Monroe Doctrine; Explain the role of sectionalism in America in the nineteenth century; Explain how the Missouri Compromise temporarily eased sectional concerns but really just delayed the issue over the expansion of slavery into the west; Describe the corrupt bargain and the presidency of John Quincy Adams; and Describe the Election of 1828 and the election of Andrew Jackson.

248 “Era of Good Feelings” “Era of Good Feelings”:Nationalism (loyalty and devotion to one’s country) swept the U.S. after the War of 1812. Federalists were a discredited political party and the Republicans were essentially the only major party in the country. James Monroe won a landslide victory for the presidency in 1816, and ran unopposed in 1820 for re-election. American System- Henry Clay’s federal program designed to stimulate the economy with internal improvements and create a self-sufficient nation. In 1816, Congress established the Second Bank of the United States (the charter for the first bank expired in 1811 and private banks began printing their own money- confusing everyone). Chief Justice John Marshall’s Supreme Court- increased federal power: It limited the right of state courts to interfere with private business contracts (Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)); It reaffirmed that federal law was superior to state law and affirmed Congress’s constitutional authority to create a federal bank. It struck down Maryland’s attempt to tax the Bank of the United States (McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)); It affirmed Congress’s right to regulate interstate commerce. It struck down a steamboat monopoly given by the State of New York to a private company when the monopoly threatened the business of another boat operator in ferrying customers from one state (New York) to another (New Jersey) (interstate commerce) (Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)); and It established the Supreme Court’s right to review state cases involving constitutional questions (Cohens v. Virginia (1821)).

249 Capitalism & Monroe DoctrineAmerica Capitalism: Businesses are privately held (farms, factories, etc.) and the free market establishes the prices of goods. Economic “Boom and Bust” Cycles: Booms- high consumer demand encourages owners to expand production and raise prices (open new businesses and hire more workers). Busts- occur when the supply exceeds the demand. Prices fall and owners cut back on production (often closing businesses and firing workers). Between , there were three busts or panics: 1819, 1837, & Unemployment and foreclosures were high. The “Era of Good Feelings” also experienced an increase in nationalistic art and literature and a fascination with western and frontier landscapes and the potential of America. Expansion: America gained Florida from Spain through the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty. Oregon remained disputed land between the U.S. and Great Britain. From Spain lost all of its Latin American Colonies: Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led several nations to declare independence from Spain (encouraged by U.S.); Miguel Hidalgo led a rebellion in México against Spain for racial equality and a redistribution of land. The rebellion was defeated, and Hidalgo was executed, but México gained its independence in 1821. The Monroe Doctrine- foreign policy doctrine set forth by President Monroe in 1823 that discouraged European intervention in the Western Hemisphere. To prevent the French from helping Spain re-establish its colonies. Written by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams working for President Monroe.

250 Quick Check Why did the U.S. hope to prevent further European colonization or re-colonization of the western hemisphere? Would the U.S. have been able to enforce the Monroe Doctrine or was it an empty threat?

251 Missouri Compromise Sectionalism: Missouri Compromise:The “Era of Good Feelings” did not last long, as regional differences emerged and caused conflict. Most Americans were supportive of their own region of the country, but issues that divided the regions were: slavery, tariffs, a national bank, and transportation projects. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina became a strong supporter of state sovereignty or state rights and opposed national projects. Daniel Webster of New Hampshire (and later Massachusetts) supported tariffs to protect northern manufacturing. Henry Clay of Kentucky came to support the interests of the west. Missouri Compromise: By 1819, when Missouri applied for statehood, regional tensions were very high and the issue of slavery in newly admitted states caused fierce debate. The South wanted Missouri admitted as a slave state and the North wanted it to be free. Either way, its admission would throw off the balance of power in the Senate (which at the time had an equal number of free and slave states). In 1820, Henry Clay came up with a compromise to ease tensions, which became known as the Missouri Compromise or the Compromise of 1820: Missouri would be admitted as a slave state and Maine would be admitted as a free state; and Slavery would be banned in the rest of the Louisiana Territory above 36° North latitude. The dispute highlighted the growing sectionalism of the country and the issue over the expansion of slavery that would now arise each time a new state applied for admission for statehood. In 1822, Denmark Vessey’s plot for a slave revolt was discovered by officials in Charleston, South Carolina before it occurred. It silenced many critics of slavery in fear of their own safety.

252 Corrupt Bargain Rise of Andrew Jackson: Election of 1824:Andrew Jackson was born in a log cabin. His father died when he was a baby and as a teenage he helped the Patriots in the Revolutionary War. Jackson was captured by the British and nearly died of camp fever. Shortly later he was orphaned. Jackson was a self-made man. He educated himself, joined the militia, studied law, became a lawyer and a judge, and owned a small plantation. Eventually he served in state politics, the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, and became a general in the army. He was a “no nonsense” type of person who would always defend honor and integrity. He appealed to people for his honest approach to things, his tough character, and as a hard-fighting Indian fighter (Creek War in 1814 and First Seminole War in ). Most of all, he was appealing to the common man. Election of 1824: Between , the U.S. only had one significant political party: the Republicans. In 1824, four Republicans ran for president: William H. Crawford of Georgia, Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts. Jackson won the majority of the popular votes but nobody received a majority of the electoral votes. Under the 12th Amendment, the House of Representatives was required to select the winner out of the top three. Henry Clay was dropped for finishing fourth in the Electoral College but he was the “wild card” in the election because he was also the Speaker of the House of Representatives. Clay and Adams secretly met. Speaker of the House Henry Clay agreed to sway the House to vote for Adams in order to prevent Jackson from winning the election. In exchange, Clay was to be made the new Secretary of State. The House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams as president, and a few days later, Henry Clay was named Secretary of State. Jackson and his supporters accused Adams of stealing the presidency and of corruption. This tainted the entire Adams presidency and became known as the “Corrupt Bargain.”

253 Election of 1828 Sixth President: John Quincy Adams: Election of 1828:Adams improved roads, waterways, and urged Congress to establish a national university, space observatories, and to promote science. Congress did not improve education or the sciences, but believed that roads and waterways would be good for the economy. The Adams presidency was rather uneventful and short and plagued by the stigma of the “Corrupt Bargain.” Election of 1828: By 1828, the Republican Party was divided. Democratic Republicans supported Andrew Jackson and favored states rights, distrusted the federal government, and consisted of the urban working class and frontiersmen. National Republicans supported John Quincy Adams and favored a strong national government and issues that helped the economy (national bank & roads) and consisted of merchants and farmers. The election of 1828 was full of mudslinging and insults to ruin the reputation of the opponent. It was a dirty election, full of slogans, rallies, and events, but in the end, Jackson won. Expansion of the Electorate: Prior to the Election of 1828, Jackson campaigned (one of the first politicians to do so) and one of the messages that he spread was the expansion of voting rights to the common man. Most states revisited their election laws and eliminated property requirements in order to vote. The electorate drastically increased (thanks to Jackson) to include nearly every white man who paid a tax (Voter turnout went from 30% to 80% in 1840). Women, blacks, and natives were still omitted. By 1824, most states (and in 1836 all states except for South Carolina), chose electors for the Electoral College based on the popular vote. Jackson and the Democrats win. During the Election of 1828, Jackson supporters began calling themselves “Democrats.” Jackson’s opponents called him a “jackass” but he liked the image so much that it became the symbol of the new Democratic Party. In 1828, Jackson won the election against John Quincy Adams by a landslide (56% of the popular vote and 2/3 of the electoral vote). Jackson and his campaign manager, Martin Van Buren (of New York), ran the campaign on the principle of states rights and smaller government. Nevertheless, when Jackson took office, he greatly increased the power of the president in several key ways.

254 Quick Check Did John Quincy Adams steal the presidency or are deals such as the “corrupt bargain” acceptable in politics?

255 Problem 37: Monroe DoctrineJames Monroe, Speech to Congress December 2, 1823. Why was Monroe giving a speech to Congress on December 2, 1823? What was the policy that Monroe announced concerning U.S. involvement in Europe? What was the policy that Monroe announced concerning European involvement in the western hemisphere?

256 Lesson 41 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain American feelings towards the Native Americans in the nineteenth century; Explain Andrew Jackson’s policy towards the Native Americans, the Indian Removal Act, and the Trail of Tears; Explain what the protective tariff was and describe the Nullification Crisis; Explain the bank re-chartering scheme, how it backfired, and the Panic of 1837; Describe the creation of the Whig Party; and Explain how Jackson expanded the electorate and changed how presidents use their veto power.

257 Jackson & Indian RemovalSeventh President Andrew Jackson: People called him “Old Hickory” because he was as tough as a hickory stick. His “rags to riches” story demonstrated the American dream. Jackson promised “equal protection and equal benefits” to all white men; by 1820, many states loosened property requirements for voting. Jackson is also known for firing many government employees and replacing them with his supporters, giving rise to the saying “to the victor belong the spoils” and the spoils system. Indian Removal Act: In the 1830s, the “Five Civilized Tribes” (Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw) lived in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida but the settlers wanted their fertile land for farming (and gold in Georgia). Many of the Cherokee had even adopted Christianity and “white” ways of land ownership, farming, gender roles, clothing, schools, and culture. Between 1827 and 1830, these southern states seized native lands and dissolved their governments. Then, in 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act which authorized federal money to relocate the natives to reservations on the Great Plains. Small sums of money were offered to “buy” their lands. In 1834, Congress created an Indian Territory in Oklahoma. The Cherokee refused to give up their lands and sued in the case of Worcester v. Georgia. It 1832, the case made its way to the Supreme Court. Chief Justice Marshall ruled that Georgia couldn’t interfere with the Cherokee since only the federal government could deal with them. Jackson convinced many Cherokee to leave their lands through the Treaty of New Echota, but it was a fraud. Only 500 Cherokee agreed to the treaty despite the 17,000 Cherokee it impacted. Trail of Tears: Despite pleas by the Cherokee not to enforce Indian Removal, the U.S. began removing the Cherokee in 1838, when General Winfield Scott arrived with 7,000 troops to forcibly remove 16,000 Cherokee. The threat of force convinced many Cherokee to leave without a fight. 2,000 died in camp and another 2,000 died on the “Trail of Tears.” The Seminole people were the only successful group to oppose removal and forced a Second Seminole War between 1835 and They used guerilla tactics like surprise attacks, they retreated back into the swamps, and they made surprise attacks on white settlements. The government finally gave up on trying to remove the Seminole in Florida. By 1842, there were few natives east of the Mississippi River. The U.S. “bought” 100 million acres of land from the Cherokee in exchange for $68 million and 32 million acres of reservation land.

258 Quick Check Was Indian removal a racist policy or one that existed for some other purpose? Explain. Was the Treaty of New Echota racist? Why did it even exist if whites planned to take the land anyways?

259 Nullification Crisis Protective Tariff: Nullification:Northerners favored a tariff (tax on imports) on manufactured goods from Europe to protect their businesses from competition. Southerners didn’t favor the tariff because they didn’t produce the goods in the South so they either needed to import them from Europe or from the North; either way, a tariff meant higher prices for Southerners. In 1828, Congress adopted an especially high tariff and Southerners called it the “Tariff of Abominations.” Nullification: In response to the high tariff, John C. Calhoun (Vice President) from South Carolina argued that an individual state could nullify (or void) a federal law that it deemed unconstitutional. In 1832, upon Jackson’s urging, Congress lowered the tariff. South Carolina was not satisfied; it passed the Nullification Act, nullified the tariff, and threatened to secede (break away from the country) anyways. Jackson responded by pushing Congress to pass the Force Bill, which allowed him to use military force to support federal laws. He also threatened to hang John C. Calhoun, who resigned as Vice President and became a Senator. After other states rejected the idea of nullification and sided with Jackson, South Carolina was forced to concede. Nevertheless it “nullified” the Force Bill.

260 Bank War The Bank Re-chartering Scheme: Use of the Veto: Whig Party:Jackson had always been against the national bank because it was run by private wealthy northerners and didn’t lend to the common man, especially frontiersmen. Many business leaders valued the national bank because they believed that it promoted economic growth and a stable currency that people could depend upon. Henry Clay and Bank President Nicholas Biddle planned to use Jackson’s dislike of the bank against him in the upcoming presidential election against Clay in 1832. The plan was for the bank to apply to renew its charter immediately (four years early), knowing that Jackson would veto it, and hopefully become unpopular with the people. Jackson did veto it, but the people supported Jackson and he won reelection. The bank’s charter expired in 1836 and closed its doors forever. Use of the Veto: Up until Jackson, Presidents only used the veto power to veto bills that they thought were unconstitutional. The veto had only been used 9 times in 42 years. Jackson, alone, vetoed 12 bills. Whig Party: Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and others who opposed Jackson formed a new political party in 1832, called the Whigs (named after a British political party). The party stood for a stronger national government to manage the economy. It relied on a broad interpretation of the Constitution and supported protective tariffs, internal improvements, and a national bank. In 1832, Jackson easily won re-election (with his new Vice President Martin Van Buren) against Henry Clay (who ran as the Whig candidate). Sadly, the closure of the Bank of the United States sent the country into an economic crisis as private banks began printing significantly more paper currency and inflation resulted. The Panic of 1837: The Panic of 1837 was an economic crisis triggered by Jackson’s refusal to accept inflated paper currency for the purchase of federal land. Land values and sales sharply declined. Businesses that invested in land went bankrupt and lost their land. The Panic of 1837 was the worst economic depression in American history.

261 Quick Check Did people in the 1830s consider Jackson to be a successful president? Do you consider Jackson to be a successful president?

262 Problem 38: Nullification ProclamationAndrew Jackson, Proclamation Regarding Nullification, December 10, 1832. What was Andrew Jackson’s argument against South Carolina’s Nullification Act? What was Jackson’s argument in support of his position even in the absence of the Supremacy Clause? Why is nullification “incompatible with the existence of the Union…and inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded”?

263 Lesson 42 Objectives Students will be able to:Summarize the Presidencies of Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison, and John Tyler; Describe the Spanish settlements of New Mexico, Texas, and California and the challenges each faced with Native Americans; Explain the idea of Manifest Destiny; Explain who the Mountain Men were and the types of lives they lived; Explain how settlers reached the west by following trails and caravanning in long wagon trains; Explain how the Oregon Country became part of the U.S.; and Explain the Mormon Exodus to the Great Salt Lake in Utah.

264 Presidents Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison & John TylerEighth President: Martin Van Buren: In the election of 1836, Martin Van Buren (vice president) ran for the Democrats and Henry Clay ran for the Whigs. Jackson’s support for Van Buren gave him the easy victory. Soon after the election, the nation faced a severe economic depression due to the Panic of 1837. In the Panic of 1837 land values dropped, investments declined, banks failed, businesses failed, and people were unemployed. Van Buren decided not to intervene and took a position of laissez faire (let it be) with the economy. One good thing Van Buren did was to establish a national treasury instead of putting government money into small banks. Ninth President: William Henry Harrison: In the election of 1840, the Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison (a war veteran of the War of 1812) to face off against Van Buren. John Tyler was Harrison’s Vice Presidential running-mate. Harrison claimed to be a “man of the people” and his campaign was known as the “Log Cabin Campaign.” Harrison’s election slogan was “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too.” Van Buren was depicted as being “King Martin” in political ads. Harrison won the election easily and became the first Whig president, but it was short lived. On Inauguration Day it was freezing out and Harrison caught pneumonia and died one month later. Tenth President: John Tyler: Although John Tyler was elected as a Whig he quickly upset his party and vetoed numerous bills proposed by the Whigs. Most of Harrison’s cabinet hated him and resigned. Tyler was soon kicked out of the Whig Party. When the election of 1844 arrived, the Whigs supported Henry Clay. The Democrats supported James Polk, who became the Eleventh President of the U.S.

265 Northern Mexico New Mexico: Texas: California:New Mexico was founded in 1598 by the Spanish as a mission settlement, yet by 1765, only 9,600 colonists lived there (most in El Paso and Santa Fe). The threat of war against the nomadic Comanche and Apache discouraged further settlers. The natives hunted buffalo with European guns and horses in the region. Apaches, themselves, were a group constantly attacked from native groups moving onto their lands and hunting their buffalo, especially by the Pueblo peoples. Some Apaches settled down (Navajos) and learned from the Pueblo how to weave, make pottery, grow corn, and tend sheep. Most Apache, however, remained nomadic hunters. Apache constantly raided the Spanish settlements in New Mexico, as did the Comanche. The Spanish built stronger fortresses and tried to use gifts and weapons to befriend the natives. The Spanish also allied themselves with the Pueblo, who were enemies of the Apache and Comanche. By 1821, the population of New Mexico grew to 40,000. Texas: Texas also faced constant raids by Native American nomadic peoples but the raids were more intense and the protections for Spanish settlers were not as fortified. Texas was a blend of ranchos, misiones, and presidios. In 1760, only 1,200 colonists lived in Texas (most near San Antonio). California: In the 1760s, the Spanish extended their colonies on the Pacific Coast to prevent Russians from settling the area. Lacking colonists that were willing to be far away from Mexico, the Spanish set up a series of misiones along the California coast to convert natives to Christianity and increase their “civilized” populations. These misiones were led by the Franciscans under Fra Junípero Serra. Because the local Native American groups lacked guns and horses, their raids were less frequent and less successful. By 1821, the Spanish had 20 misiones containing 18,000 converted natives.

266 Quick Check Explain the concept of Manifest Destiny.How would 19th century Americans have justified taking land away from Mexicans and Native Americans other than turning to God’s will according to Manifest Destiny?

267 America Moves West Mexican Revolution: Manifest Destiny:In 1821, the Mexican Revolution overthrew Spanish rule in Mexico and its North America colonies. Manifest Destiny: American expansionists (people who favored territorial growth) soon began to want New Mexico, Texas, and California for their land and resources. They argued that Mexico was weak and couldn’t hold these territories. Manifest Destiny was the belief that westward expansion of the U.S. was not only inevitable, but a God-given right (that God wanted the U.S. to own all of North America). America’s Manifest Destiny would come at the expense of Mexicans and Native Americans. Trade with Mexico: After Mexican independence, the U.S. began trading with Northern Mexico and the Mexicans there grew dependent upon American trade (Coahilla y Texas; Santa Fe Trail; and Coastal California). Oregon: Mountain men, were tough and adventuresome American trappers who explored the Rocky Mountains in the early 1800s as single men living in the wilderness, on their own, looking for furs to trade with large trading companies once per year at a rendezvous. South Pass through the Rockies in Wyoming; California Trail; and Oregon Trail (turned northwest at the South Pass to reach the Oregon Territory). Mountain Men lived in the frontier, often alone, and faced serious dangers on a daily basis: starvation, dehydration, extreme temperatures, wild animals, and natives. Many Mountain Men married native women and adopted native ways of life. Over time, the beavers died out and many mountain men moved to Oregon to become farmers or guides. Utah: Joseph Smith published the Book of Mormon in 1830, claiming that it was a translation of words written on golden plates that he received from an angel. One aspect of the new Mormon religion that angered many Christians was polygamy (having more than one wife). Their controversial beliefs forced them to leave the east coast and settle in Illinois; soon they were forced to move even further west. In 1844, a mob killed Joseph Smith. In 1847, Brigham Young led the group through the mountains to the Great Salt Lake in Utah. In 1850, the U.S. established the Utah Territory but because of the Mormon religion, Utah didn’t become a state until 1896.

268 Settling the West St. Louis Missouri- Gateway to the West:From St. Louis, the journey was approximately 2,000-miles and took 5-months. Wooden wagons, pulled by oxen, brought settlers across the trails in long wagon trains ( wagons and from 50-1,000 people) to the west. Most people bypassed the Great Plains for land they thought was more fertile on the Pacific. Settlers had to pass the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Mountains before winter arrived. The journey was a gamble. For the Donner Party, in 1846, it was a nightmare (resorted to cannibalism as they were stuck in snow in the mountains for several months). approximately 260,000 Americans headed westward. Oregon Country- large area in the northwest on the Canadian border. In 1800, four countries claimed the Oregon Country: U.S., Great Britain, Spain, and Russia. In 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to a joint occupation of Oregon. In 1819, the Adams-Onís Treaty with Spain set the border of Spanish territory at California. In 1824, the Russo-American Treaty of 1824 announced that Russia gave up its claim to land south of Alaska at 54˚40’ North latitude. In 1825, John Quincy Adams negotiated with Great Britain for a permanent border. Adams tried to set the border at 54°40’ North latitude but the British refused. Thousands of frontiersmen and mountain men traveled on the Oregon Trail to settle the area. In 1846 President Polk finally negotiated with Great Britain and established the Oregon Treaty of 1846, setting the border with Canada at 49° North latitude. In 1844, Democrat James K. Polk easily defeated the Whig, Henry Clay, to become the Eleventh President. Not only were the Whigs disorganized, but they didn’t strongly support the settlement of Oregon like Polk did.

269 Quick Check What was the American strategy in settling the Oregon border dispute?

270 Problem 39: Manifest DestinyJohn L. O’Sullivan, Manifest Destiny, December 27, 1845. What was John L. O’Sullivan’s main point? What is manifest destiny? What foreign lands had been made part of the U.S. and what predictions does O’Sullivan make regarding future territory in his article?

271 Problem 40: Donner Party Patrick Breen, Diary Donner-Reed Party, November 20, 1846 to March 1, 1847. https://user.xmission.com/~octa/DonnerParty/BreenDiary.htm What were the challenges facing the Donner Party according to the diary? Who is the first person to die? When does that person die? When is the first mention of cannibalism? What other things does Breen report in his diary entries?

272 Lesson 43 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe how Texas came to be occupied by Americans; Explain what caused Texas to declare independence and fight a war for independence against Mexico; Explain how Texas became a U.S. territory and later a state; Explain President James K. Polk’s expansionist goals for the U.S.; Explain how the U.S. gained the New Mexico and California Territories; List Polk’s goals for the Mexican-American War; Describe how each of Polk’s war goals were achieved; Summarize the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the consequences of the Mexican-American War; Describe how the Gold Rush changed California; and Explain how the newly acquired lands would actually tear the U.S. apart along sectional lines over the issue of the expansion of slavery.

273 Settlement of Texas Mexico invited American settlers to Texas:By 1821, when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, Texas was occupied by 4,000 Tejanos (Mexicans who lived in Texas), Natives, and American settlers. Early settlers (300 families) came to Texas with Stephen Austin and settled east of San Antonio. These settlers were attracted by the fertile land and its proximity to the U.S. and they were welcomed into the country by the Mexican government. Called empresarios (businessmen or entrepreneurs), these men recruited and took charge of new American settlers in the region. From 1821 to 1825, Mexico continued to allow U.S. settlers upon the promise that they would learn Spanish, practice the Catholic faith, and follow Mexican law (which banned slavery). By 1835, the 30,000 Americans outnumbered the 5,000 Tejanos living in Texas and they didn’t follow their end of the agreement. As a result, the Mexican government stopped allowing Americans to settle in Texas and limited trade with America for the existing settlers. Poor Relations with the Mexican government: In 1833, General Antonio López de Santa Anna became president of Mexico. In a short time, he dissolved Congress, created a military dictatorship in Mexico, and abolished the Mexican Constitution. Texas had its own issues; it was governed by the adjacent state of Coahuila. In 1833, Stephen Austin traveled to Mexico City to request that Santa Anna grant Texas its own Anglo-dominant statehood within Mexico apart from the Mexican-dominated state of Coahuila. When Santa Anna denied Austin’s request, Austin sent a letter to friends in Texas to prepare to fight for independence. Unfortunately for Austin, the letter was intercepted and Austin was arrested. Causing further conflict with Santa Anna, the governor of Texas refused to dissolve the state legislature after the Constitution of was dissolved by Santa Anna. Nevertheless, the state of Texas was divided over whether it should secede (break away) from Mexico or not. Editors of American newspapers called for Texan secession and independence from Mexico. Eventually, the leading men of Texas agreed and established an army to fight for independence. Several skirmishes between Mexican and Texan troops occurred between In 1835, the Texans gained control of San Antonio and fortified a Spanish misión there called the Alamo. On March 2, 1836, Texas declared its independence from Mexico and established the “Lone Star Republic.”

274 Republic of Texas “Remember the Alamo”: Texan Statehood:In 1836, a furious Santa Anna sent troops to the Alamo. 189 Texans (who lacked gunpowder) defended the Alamo against over 2,000 well-armed Mexicans. Famous defenders of the Alamo: Davy Crockett, Jim Bowie, and 26-year old leader William Travis. For 12 days the Texans held off the Mexicans, but on March 6, 1836, the Mexicans breached the walls. Only a few women, children, and Travis’s slave Joe were spared. At the same time, leaders in Texas met and declared independence, forming the Republic of Texas. On April 21, 1836, Texan troops under Sam Houston trapped and attacked the Mexicans at San Jacinto, shouting “Remember the Alamo.” The Texan troops killed 630 Mexican soldiers and took 730 prisoners (including Santa Anna himself). The Texans had only 32 casualties in the battle. On May 14, 1836, Santa Anna surrendered and recognized the new Republic of Texas. The Mexican Congress would only agree to a border at the Nueces River. The next decade would feature a border war in the region between the Nueces and Río Grande. Texan Statehood: After gaining its independence, the Texans elected Samuel Houston as their president. President Houston quickly sent a delegation to Washington, D.C. to request that Texas be annexed to the U.S. While President Jackson secretly liked the idea, Congress didn’t want another slave state to upset the balance in the Senate. Presidents Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, and Tyler did not allow Texas to become a state; nevertheless, Texas would play a major role in the Election of 1844. In 1844, expansionist James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay and was elected President of the U.S. After his election, Polk allowed the annexation of Texas; and on December 29, 1845, Texas officially became a U.S. state. Polk promised that in exchange for the addition of a slave state, he would gain Oregon, from which free states could be admitted. Oregon Territory: Northerners wanted the border with Canada to be drawn at 54˚ 40’ North Latitude. In June of 1846, Polk compromised with the British, agreeing to split Oregon at the 49˚ North Latitude line, angering many northerners. Eventually, the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho came out of this new territory. The British gained the Canadian province of British Columbia. Polk compromised to avoid war with Great Britain and focus on a new war with Mexico to gain its northern states of New Mexico & California.

275 Quick Check Were the defenders of the Alamo brave or foolish for agreeing to fight to the death when they knew that they would lose the battle?

276 New Mexico & CaliforniaPolk’s Expansion Goals: Settle the border dispute with Britain over the Oregon Territory; Annex Mexico’s Northern Territories of New Mexico and California; Gain the disputed borderland of Texas between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande (which would triple the size of Texas); and Take the Mexican Capital of Mexico City. Polk’s Offer to Mexico: After gaining the presidency, James K. Polk offered to buy New Mexico and California from Mexico but Mexico refused; as a result, Polk planned to take the land that he wanted. New Mexico: In the early 1800s, the New Mexico Territory contained present day New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Until 1821, it was controlled by Spain; then in 1821, it became part of Mexico. The Mexicans allowed American traders in Santa Fe in 1821, and William Becknell became the first America trader there. His route to New Mexico became known as the Santa Fe Trail. On August 18, 1846, American General Stephen Kearny marched into Santa Fe. The Mexican governor handed the territory over to the U.S. without a fight. California: In the 1700s, the Spanish settled California and established Catholic Misiones along the Pacific coast of Alta California from Sonoma to San Diego to convert natives to Christianity and use their labor on huge estates called ranchos (ranches) run by rancheros (ranchers), who treated natives like slaves. In June of 1846, several American settlers living in Mexican Alta California rebelled against the Mexican government for not being allowed to buy or rent land and because Mexico threatened to deport them for not entering the country legally. The rebels hoisted a flag with a grizzly bear on it over Sonoma and declared a new independent republic, the Republic of California, which became known as the “Bear Flag Republic” after the flag that they used. They elected new military leaders to rule the territory. On July 5, 1846, the 200 rebel soldiers joined the U.S. army under Major John C. Frémont, which had arrived by land. On July 9, 1846, the Bear Flag Republic ceased to exist (after only 25 days in existence) when the U.S. navy arrived under Lieutenant Joseph Revere, who replaced the Bear Flag with the U.S. flag, flying over Sonoma.

277 Mexican War Ignites On April 24,1846. President Polk ordered American troops to march across the disputed Texan borderland between the Nueces River and the Río Grande. In May, 1846 Mexican troops fired upon the American soldiers, killing 11. Polk used the killing of American soldiers as justification for war against Mexico and asked Congress for a declaration of war. He said, “Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon the American soil.” The Mexicans saw the conflict as an invasion by the U.S. that shed Mexican blood on its soil. Although some Whigs opposed the war, it had wide popular support and Congress overwhelmingly voted to declare war against Mexico. By early 1847, the U.S. controlled the Texan Borderland. The only goal Polk still needed to achieve was to take Mexico City. In March 1847, General Winfield Scott completed a 3 week siege on Veracruz. He marched 300 miles inland and took Mexico City in September 1847, after the fierce Battle at Chapultepec (a fortress above Mexico City). Mexico surrendered with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848: The U.S. agreed to leave Mexico City; Mexico gave up Texas and set the border at the Río Grande; and Mexican Cession: Mexico gave up New Mexico and California for $15 million. In 1853, the U.S. paid another $10 million for a 29,640 square mile strip of land along the coast of Arizona and New Mexico, known as the Gadsden Purchase. The U.S. purchased this land to build a railroad to California.

278 Quick Check Who started the Mexican-American War?Did the U.S. act deviously under President Polk to get what it wanted? Explain. Did the U.S. bully a weaker nation to gain its land?

279 Manifest Destiny & Gold RushAmerica’s Manifest Destiny: At the end of the Mexican-American War, the U.S. gained 1.2 million square miles of what had belonged to Mexico (more than 1/3 of Mexico’s territory). Wilmot Proviso: Congressman David Wilmot proposed a bill that would ban slavery in the newly acquired lands gained from Mexico. Over the next 15 years, the bill was re-voted on in every session of Congress, where it always passed in the House but failed in the Senate. California Gold Rush: In 1848, flecks of gold were discovered at John Sutter’s Saw Mill in California. By 1849, thousands of prospectors (called Forty-Niners) arrived. New communities called boomtowns were built in record time. 80,000 men arrived from the east; 25,000 men migrated from China; and Other prospectors came from Peru, Chile, other parts of Latin America, and Europe. Very few miners were successful, and those who were, often blew their money on alcohol, gambling, and prostitutes. Early miners were placer miners or panned for gold in rivers and streams. Later miners: Dammed streams to expose their beds; Used hydraulic mining, where they used jets of water to erode gravel hills into sluices in order to catch the gold; or Hard Rock Mining, where they searched in the mountains for veins of quartz that might contain gold. In 1847, California’s population was 14,000; by 1852, it soared to 225,000. Merchants were the real winners because they could charge whatever they wanted for basic goods. Native Americans and foreigners were the losers in the gold rush, losing their lands and paying foreigner taxes in the west. Because there were no police, vigilante justice was common- miners themselves acted as judge, jury, and executioner. By 1849, California wrote a Constitution that banned African Americans, both free and slave. It then applied for statehood. At the time, power was balanced in the Senate with15 free states and 15 slave states. Either way, the admission of California would upset the balance of power in the nation yet again.

280 Lesson 44 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the Second Great Awakening and the religious changes that took place in the 1800s; Explain how religion inspired other reforms in the 1800s; Explain why groups such as the Mormons, Catholics, and Jews continued to face discrimination; Explain what Utopian Communities were and the challenges they faced; Explain what Transcendentalism was and how it focused on nature to uncover deeper truths in life; Describe the Education Reform Movement; Describe the Reform Movement for the Mentally Ill; Describe the Prison Reform Movement and Penitentiary Reform; Describe the efforts of the Temperance Reform Movement; and Describe the status of women in the 1800s and the efforts of the Women’s Rights Movement.

281 Second Great AwakeningBetween , revivalist Protestant preachers began to preach that heaven was open to all people, not just the elite. They emphasized individual responsibility as the way to please God and get into heaven. Each person had control over his own destiny, and therefore, should improve his own life and live more spiritually. Church membership increased (especially Baptists and Methodists). People began making improvements to society. Religious Services: Outdoor “revival” or “camp” meetings in rural areas lasted for weeks and included food and music. Evangelical worship- where people brought strong emotions and declared their faith publicly (many of whom were women). Religion in Public Life: Some Americans wanted the government to improve public morality through reforms. Others argued that religion had no place in government. The debate continues to this day (should a Sabbath Day be treated differently than other days?). New Religious Groups: African Americans under the leadership of a former slave, Richard Allen, formed the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), which argued for freedom after a lifetime of oppression and difficulties for its members. Mormons (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints)- under the leadership of Joseph Smith. Unitarians- Puritans who began to see God as a single being and not as the “Trinity.”

282 Discrimination, Utopias, & TranscendentalismDespite the spiritual goals of the Second Great Awakening, some in society faced religious discrimination. Mormons- people disliked the Mormons because of polygamy (having more than one wife) and because they grew financially and politically powerful (owning land as a group and voting together). They were driven out of Ohio and Missouri. When Joseph Smith announced that he was going to run for president, he was murdered. Smith’s successor led the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake where they founded Salt Lake City, Utah. Catholics- people disliked the Catholics because they thought that Catholics held undemocratic ideals and would choose loyalty to the Pope rather than their own country. They were also disliked because many were poor immigrants and would work for so little money that it threatened the jobs of other workers. Nativists opposed Catholic immigration. Jews- until the late 1800s many state constitutions required officeholders to be Christians. Up until 1840 there were only about 2,000 Jews in America (mostly in clusters in New York, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania). When they began to come in larger numbers, they were treated poorly by many people. Utopian Communities- communities based on unusual ways of sharing property, labor, and family life emerged as alternatives to life in an imperfect society in the early 1800s (most were short lived). New Harmony (Indiana); Brook Farm (Massachusetts); Shakers or the Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing (villages in New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, and Illinois) but all eventually failed. Men and women were to live in separate housing and did not marry or have children… Transcendentalism- new way of looking at humanity, nature, and God and the relationship among them. The goal was for individuals to transcend logic or tradition to uncover the deepest truths in life (listen to nature instead of long sermons). Ralph Waldo Emmerson; and Henry David Thoreau (inspiration for Civil Rights Activists for his essay, “Civil Disobedience” (which arose when he refused to pay taxes to support the Mexican-American War in 1846).

283 Education & Social ReformThe Second Great Awakening argued that followers had a “sacred responsibility” to improve life on Earth through reform, especially for the most disadvantaged people. Education Reform: Since Colonial times, most children were educated at home by their parents. In many regions, only the wealthy attended academies and schools (which required fees to attend). Public School Movement- established tax-supported free public schools for children to give Americans the knowledge and intellectual tools to make decisions as citizens in a democracy. Horace Mann- Massachusetts education reformer (who grew up poor and uneducated) pushed for laws requiring all children to attend school, providing for school funding, and a system for educating teachers. Schools for Women- Catherine Beecher and Emma Willard. Medical Training for Women (by 1850s)- Elizabeth Blackwell and Ann Preston. Reform for the Mentally Ill- In 1841, Dorothea Dix encouraged the building of humane hospitals (mental hospitals) to house the mentally ill instead of prisons and almshouses (housing for the poor). Penitentiary Movement- Dix also urged that prisons should not be seen as places to punish people for the crimes that they committed, but rather, to make them feel sorrow (or penitence) for what they had done. Pennsylvania System- prisoners were urged to repent while they lived in complete solitary confinement (Eastern State Penitentiary), but this was very expensive. Auburn System- based on the prison in Auburn, New York, prisoners worked together during the day in strict silence but slept in separate cells at night. Temperance Movement- many saw the evils of society occurring as a result of alcohol and worked to end alcohol abuse and the problems created by it. Temperance means using alcohol in moderation. The more extreme reformists pushed for Prohibition, or the ban on all alcohol. Both argued that alcohol was a waste of money, caused violence and crime, and caused spousal abuse. Many women were involved with the American Temperance Society.

284 Quick Check How did the Second Great Awakening inspire the other reform movements of the mid-1800s?

285 Limited Rights for WomenIn the 1800s, women’s rights were limited. Women’s roles were limited to the domestic or private sphere, where they were expected to raise respectable children and maintain a respectable home. Politically they were expected to be represented by their husbands; women could not hold office, vote, serve on juries, or speak publicly. Formal education for women was rare (unless they were extremely wealthy). Divorce was legal (although a woman could not testify against her husband in court) but the husband often gained custody of the children and all of the property. All property and money belonged to the husband upon marriage. Reform Era Changes: The Second Great Awakening gave women the opportunity to challenge and reform their own status in society. In the 1820s and 1830s women began working outside of the home for the first time in the textile mills and factories, although they were paid less than men. Regardless, it gave women a small degree of economic independence and social independence. Origins of Women’s Rights: Middle class women (with time on their hands) began to compare women’s rights to those of slaves. These women began the Women’s Movement, which worked for greater rights and opportunities for women in the early and middle 1800s. Many of the women’s rights reformers were also abolitionists (like Lucy Stone).

286 Women's Rights MovementPamphlets and Books: Margaret Fuller- what women needed was “…as a nature to grow, as an intellect to discern, as a soul to live freely and unimpeded...” Grimké Sisters- published a book called Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton- called for women to be allowed to join men’s business meetings (both were also abolitionists and active in the temperance movement). Amelia Bloomer- published a newspaper, The Lily, concerning equality in fashion, calling for women to be able to wear pants instead of dresses. Seneca Falls Convention- women’s rights convention that met in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York. Delegates at the convention adopted the “Declaration of Sentiments” modeled after the Declaration of Independence but focused on women’s rights. Susan B. Anthony- pushed for women’s rights and the right to suffrage (right to vote) but that battle would not be won until 1920, with the Nineteenth Amendment. In 1848, New York passed the Married Women’s Property Act, granting women property rights apart from their husbands. The Women’s Rights Movement set the groundwork for a century and half long struggle to bring equal rights to women.

287 Quick Check Was the Women’s Rights Movement of the mid-1800s a success or a failure?

288 Problem 41: Treatment of the InsaneDorothea Lynde Dix, Memorial Soliciting a State Hospital for the Protection and Cure of the Insane, Submitted to the General Assembly of North Carolina, November, 1848, pp. 8–9, 14–15, 16–17, 26–28, 39–41. Why did Dorothea Dix write this appeal? What are her requests and what evidence does she give to support her points?

289 Problem 42: Declaration of SentimentsElizabeth Cady Stanton, A History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 1 (Rochester, N.Y.: Fowler and Wells, 1889), pages https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/senecafalls.asp How is the Declaration of Sentiments similar to the Declaration of Independence? How is the Declaration of Sentiments different from the Declaration of Independence? Has the U.S. corrected all of the issues that are listed in the Declaration of Sentiments as of today? If not, what still needs to be addressed with regards to the treatment of women? Explain.

290 Lesson 45 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe life under slavery; Explain the difference between a slave’s act of resistance versus negotiation; Describe how slaves resisted slavery and give examples of slave revolts; Describe the Abolitionist Movement; Explain the abolitionist arguments in the two schools of thought on abolition: immediate emancipation and gradual abolition; Explain how the South tried to justify slavery; and Explain how most people in the North also defended slavery.

291 Life Under Slavery Cruel Treatment:Backbreaking labor from dawn until dusk was common for slaves in the South. “Overseers” kept a close eye on slaves and used corporeal punishment (physical punishment) to discipline slaves, which included: beating, whipping, and maiming. Psychological and mental abuse was also used, such as withholding basic necessities, humiliation, and threats of breaking up families. Slaves were intentionally kept ignorant and not taught to read or write. Coping methods included keeping close relationships with friends and family, naming children after other family members, keeping stories and traditions alive, music, and religion. Negotiation v. Resistance: Many slaves made the decision to negotiate the best situation that they could for themselves under slavery. While not physically resisting their masters, some slaves chose to follow orders so as to have some control over their lives and comfort. If their masters were pleased, then they would be less likely to physically harm or separate loved ones. Other slaves physically resisted. Resistance included sabotage, breaking tools, pretending to be ill, or running away. Many used the Underground Railroad to escape slavery. Others decided to fight. There were approximately 200 slave revolts from Denmark Vesey- was a freedman who was inspired by the Haitian Revolution and planned a revolt in 1822 in Charleston. The plot was uncovered and Vesey and dozens of his accomplices were executed before carrying it out. Nat Turner- was a slave, in 1831, who believed that God gave him a sign to lead his people to freedom. Turner led his followers in Virginia through Southampton County, killing any white person that they encountered (including the entire Turner family). After six weeks and after killing nearly 60 people, the local militia put an end to the rebellion. Nat Turner and his accomplices were tried and executed. The results of Nat Turner’s Rebellion were harsh for blacks (restrictions on how many could gather, when they could gather, no education for blacks, and mandatory passes for blacks when outside of their master’s property were required).

292 Quick Check What was the difference between negotiation and physical resistance? Did both options give slaves an element of control? Explain. If you were a slave, which would you have chosen? Why?

293 Early Abolitionist MovementBy the 1840s, northern states had gradually abolished slavery. Many other states (like Maryland and Virginia) encouraged slave owners to manumit their slaves (officially granting them freedom). Freedmen faced persistent racial discrimination. Southerners feared that the existence of freedmen threatened to inspire resistance by their current slaves. In 1816, Southern slaveholders began the American Colonization Society to transport freedmen back to Africa. They established Liberia (capital named Monrovia after James Monroe). The effort was a failure; few freedmen had any ties to Africa culturally, linguistically, or otherwise, and most considered the U.S. to be their home. Many freedmen worked together to establish churches and schools. Some became active participants in the abolitionist movement. In 1829, David Walker, a freedman from Boston, published a pamphlet that used religion to attack slavery. Abolitionist Movement- was a movement that aimed to end slavery that had two distinct factions: immediate emancipation and gradual abolition (or gradual enfranchisement). Immediate Emancipation- called for the immediate freeing of the slaves. William Lloyd Garrison (in 1831 published his anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator; and in 1833, founded the American Anti- Slavery Society)- Garrison argued that slavery was morally wrong and pushed for the immediate freeing of slaves and granting them full political and social rights. This was discredited by many as too radical. Sarah and Angelina Grimké were sisters born in South Carolina to a wealthy slave owner. In 1832, they moved North and gave speeches against slavery. Angelina also married Theodore Weld, another abolitionist who actively spoke to end slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, in 1858, bringing the evils of slavery as a cruel and brutal system to thousands across the country. In 1862, Lincoln called Stowe “the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war.” Frederick Douglas- an educated former slave gave moving and eloquent speeches throughout the North about the evils of slavery and published an anti-slavery newspaper called The North Star. Most abolitionists favored gradual abolition, which called for the gradual phasing out of slavery with the hopes of eventually granting rights to freed slaves.

294 Defense of Slavery Despite the Abolitionist Movement, most Americans in the South and North supported slavery. Southern Defense of Slavery: It was a necessary part of the southern agricultural economy; It benefitted the Northern textile industry that depended on Southern cotton; Northern free labor forced people to work longer for little compensation, whereas the slave was provided all of his life necessities on the plantation; The Bible supported slavery (Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham in Genesis 9); Slavery civilized and brought Christianity to a group that was uncivilized and heathen in Africa; and Slaves could not survive without slavery. Resistance to Abolition in the North: Angry mobs threatened and used violence against abolitionists; Arson, vandalism, and the destruction of printing offices in the North are evidence of Northern Resistance; White workers in the North feared competing with blacks for a limited number of jobs, since they would work for less money; Northern mill owners feared the impact on their businesses of losing Southern cotton; and Northerners did not want an exodus of slave refugees filling their cities and towns. The issue of slavery divided the country and led to centuries of racial prejudice and violence in America.

295 Quick Check What was the difference between immediate emancipation and gradual abolition? What were the abolitionist arguments against immediate emancipation?

296 Problem 43: Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the WorldDavid Walker, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, Article I “Our Wretchedness in Consequence of Slavery,” September 28, 1829. According to Walker, how has slavery harmed African Americans? Who is the intended audience of this document? What is he suggesting be done regarding slavery and slave owners?

297 Problem 44: Gradual AbolitionPennsylvania- An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, March 1, 1780. What did Pennsylvania mean by “gradual abolition”? What was the plan or sequence for abolishing slavery in Pennsylvania announced by this act in 1780? If all states enacted this law in 1780 would the Southern economy have failed? If all states enacted this law in 1780 could the Civil War have been avoided?

298 Problem 45: Fourth of July SpeechFrederick Douglass, Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro- Rochester, New York, July 5, 1862. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, Volume II, Pre-Civil War Decade https://www.democracynow.org/2017/7/4/what_to_the_slave_is_4th (James Earl Jones- Audio) What is Frederick Douglass’s main point in his speech? Was the Fourth of July a hypocritical event? Explain.

299 Lesson 46-47 Objectives Students will be able to:Use primary sources to write an essay describing the most successful ways in which slaveholders and society controlled enslaved blacks in the Antebellum period to prevent slaves from challenging their masters, running away, and rebelling against the institution of slavery. Clearly integrate evidence from the primary sources and slave narratives in writing a cohesive and well- constructed essay on the topic.

300 Lesson 48 Objectives Students will be able to:Compare and contrast Northern and Southern societies in the early 1800s; Compare and contrast the differing views on slavery that existed in both the North and the South; Describe the major issue facing the U.S. after the Mexican-American War over the expansion of slavery in the west; Describe the debate over the Wilmot Proviso versus Popular Sovereignty; Explain the reason for the founding of the Free Soil Party; Describe how California’s admission to the U.S. created a dilemma; Explain each of the parts of the Compromise of 1850; Describe the debate over the Compromise of 1850; Explain how the death of President Zachary Taylor and the signing of the Compromise of 1850 by his successor, Millard Fillmore, temporarily saved the country from breaking apart over slavery; Explain how the Fugitive Slave Law, the work of abolitionists, and Uncle Tom’s Cabin brought slavery directly to Northerners for the first time and prevented them from looking away any longer; and Explain how the Underground Railroad worked and how it provided an escape route for some slaves.

301 Different Views on SlaveryNorth versus South: Most Northerners were poor, white, rural, subsistence farmers after the American Revolution. Cities with industry and technology also developed and attracted new immigrants to the country. By 1800, there were only 50,000 slaves in the North. By 1860, there were only 16 slaves in the North (all in New Jersey). Northerners viewed African Americans as inferior but the Northern economy and climate made slavery less cost effective than wage labor. Abolitionists were a minority and many bankers, industrialists, and merchants became rich from slavery. Northern workers also feared abolition because it would cause competition for scarce jobs in the North from freedmen. The South remained an agricultural society and the economy was largely based on a single crop: cotton. To grow large quantities of cotton, large Southern plantations developed, using slave labor. By 1800, there were 1,000,000 slaves in the South. By 1860, there were 2,000,000 slaves in the South. Many Southerners criticized the wage labor system of the North as worse than slavery (long hours, low pay, and bad working conditions) and argued that slaves were happier and healthier. As the country grew and expanded westward, the central question arose- should slavery be allowed to expand into the new territories west of the Mississippi River? Would the newly acquired Mexican lands become free or slave territories? David Wilmot proposed a bill that banned slavery in the newly acquired territories called the Wilmot Proviso. Others called for Popular Sovereignty in the territories- letting the territory itself choose whether it would be free or slave. Either way, the Missouri Compromise banned slavery north of the line at 36˚30’ North Latitude.

302 Election of 1848 Missouri Compromise of 1820: The Election of 1848:In 1819, when Missouri applied for statehood, there were 11 slave and 11 free states. The Missouri Compromise solved the issue (at least temporarily): Missouri would be a slave state and Maine would be a free state to keep the balance in the Senate and slavery was made illegal in territories north of 36°30’ North Latitude. The Election of 1848: In the election of 1848, the Whigs selected Zachary Taylor and Democrats chose Lewis Cass; both ignored the growing concern over slavery’s expansion into the western territories and sectionalism. Antislavery supporters started their own political party called the Free Soil Party, known for “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” Its main goal was to keep slavery out of the western territories. In the end, Zachary Taylor won the election, mainly because third-party candidate, Martin Van Buren of the Free Soil Party, carried 10% of the vote, which took votes away from Cass. California Dilemma: California drew people from all over the world due to “gold fever.” Within a year, California had 80,000 inhabitants. To prevent lawlessness, California drafted a Constitution in 1849 and petitioned for statehood as a free state (which would tip the balance in favor of the free states). Everyone agreed that with the gold rush and migration to California, it had to become a state. Nevertheless, the South was angered at the prospect of losing power to the free states and the abolitionists in the North were growing stronger. It looked like the South’s way of life and economy based on slavery could be at risk. Henry Clay stepped in to draft a compromise. For his abilities at compromising he earned the nickname: the “Great Pacificator” or the “Great Compromiser.”

303 Compromise of 1850 Compromise of 1850 (a package of separate bills designed to give each side some favorable measures). California would be admitted as a free state; New territories could choose whether to be slave or free through popular sovereignty; The slave trade but not slavery would become illegal in Washington, D.C.; and A stronger Fugitive Slave Law would go into effect that required Northern enforcement, even by private citizens. The 1842, the U.S. Supreme Court case Prigg v. Pennsylvania determined that states were not required to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law of The new Fugitive Slave Law would require not only states, but also citizens, to assist in catching and returning runaway slaves. Debate over the Compromise of 1850: John C. Calhoun suggested that the Compromise of 1850 did not protect slavery enough. He said that the South should secede (break away) from the union in peace. Daniel Webster urged Congress to come together in unity and adopt the Compromise. Radical abolitionists urged for no further compromise over the expansion of slavery. Debate in the Senate almost turned deadly as Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton (who supported California’s admission as a free state) denounced Mississippi Senator Henry Foote (who opposed it). Furious, Foote rose up and pointed a loaded pistol at Benton. Another Senator was able to secure the gun and restored order before bloodshed resulted. In the end, Stephen A. Douglass of Illinois persuaded the Senate to pass the Compromise. President Zachary Taylor (of Louisiana) planned to veto the Compromise of 1850. He was a strong unionist who planned to use force to hold the country together if it was necessary. Taylor planned to veto the Compromise of 1850. Unfortunately for Taylor, he died unexpectedly after consuming a large quantity of cherries and milk (it turns out he died of cholera (intestinal ailments)). Taylor’s Vice President, Millard Fillmore, took over and quickly signed the Compromise of 1850 into law, making California a free state.

304 Quick Check Did the Compromise of 1850 effectively solve the problem of slavery’s expansion into the western territories? If not, what could have been done instead?

305 Northern Resistance to Slavery IncreasesGreat Britain Abolished Slavery in its empire in 1833, with compensation to owners of freed slaves. In the U.S. slavery would tear the country apart. Amazing Grace song writer John Newton was an Englishman who once worked on a slave ship. Fugitive Slave Law: The new Fugitive Slave Law required private citizens in the North to actively catch and return runaway slaves, which enraged many. Abolitionists and other Northerner’s resented being forced to support slavery. A few Northern states passed “Personal Liberty Laws,” in essence, nullifying the Fugitive Slave Act. Some of the African Americans who were arrested were actually free and had been kidnapped and sold into slavery. The accused runaway slave could appeal to a judge but could not testify. Also, the judge was paid $10 to find that the man was a slave but only $5 to rule that he was free. Northerners Defied the Law: Christiana Riot- where a group of 30 armed men came to protect a fugitive slave from being captured by his Maryland owner. It resulted in a scuffle and the death of the owner, but nobody was tried for the murder or conspiracy. The justice systems in the North often looked the other way. Juries often returned verdicts of “not guilty” when people refused to assist in the capture of runaway slaves. Underground Railroad- was a loose network of safe houses and “stations” that helped runaway slaves escape to the North and Canada by fleeing at night and hiding during the day. Harriet Tubman- famous courageous “conductor” and former slave known as “Black Moses” because she helped her people to flee from bondage. She made nearly 25 trips to the South, guiding hundreds of slaves to freedom. Uncle Tom’s Cabin- Harriet Beecher Stowe gave slavery a face for those who had never witnessed it. It was a vivid portrayal of slavery and spread compassion for slaves and exposed their brutal treatment at the hands of their masters. Drapetomania- Southerners wrote their own stories about slavery, where they depicted happy and carefree slaves interacting with kind owners. They believed that only mentally ill slaves (who suffered from drapetomania) ran away.

306 Quick Check Was the new Fugitive Slave law a success or a failure from the Southern point of view?

307 Problem 46: Uncle Tom’s CabinHarriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 1852. https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/amex25.socst.ush.hbstowe/harriet-beecher-stowe- uncle-toms-cabin/#.WXekr8JK19A (Video) Summarize what happened in this scene. What physical violence occurred in this scene? What psychological or emotional violence occurred in this scene? Why do you think Stowe included this scene in her book? What did she want readers to take away from it?

308 Lesson 49 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the major issue dividing the U.S. in the 1850s: the expansion of slavery into the western territories; Explain the proposed solutions to the expansion of slavery; Explain the Kansas-Nebraska Act; Explain how and why violence, called “Bleeding Kansas,” occurred in the Kansas Territory; Describe the political parties in existence in the 1850s and their platforms on the expansion of slavery; Explain the Dred Scott case, Chief Justice Roger Taney’s decision, and the impact it had on the nation; Describe the Lincoln v. Douglas Debates; Describe the raid on Harpers Ferry; Explain how Lincoln won the election of 1860; Explain South Carolina’s reaction to the election of Lincoln; and Explain how the states of the Deep South seceded and founded the Confederate States of America.

309 Kansas-Nebraska Act & “Bleeding Kansas”Franklin Pierce: In 1853, the Democrat from New Hampshire, Franklin Pierce, became president. Pierce supported the Fugitive Slave Act and the principle of popular sovereignty. Nebraska Territory: In 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas introduced a bill to set up a government in the Nebraska Territory, organized according to the principle of popular sovereignty. Congress fell into bitter debate, especially when the South realized that Nebraska might choose to be free state when the time came. In response, Douglas amended his bill to split the territory into two parts: Kansas and Nebraska. Kansas-Nebraska Act: An act of Congress that divided the Nebraska Territory into Kansas and Nebraska, giving each territory the right to decide whether or not to allow slavery. The act voided the Missouri Compromise line at 36˚30’ N. “Bleeding Kansas”: After the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed in 1854, Nebraska voted to be free state and both pro-slavery and anti-slavery supporters fled into Kansas. Although only 1,500 people lived in Kansas at the time, 6,000 votes were cast (thousands of border ruffians crossed just to vote). Slavery was determined to be legal and a pro-slavery legislature was elected. Those who opposed slavery refused to respect the election and held their own elections. Two competing governments resulted in Kansas at the same time. Frustrated, pro-slavery supporters invaded the anti-slavery settlement of Lawrence, Kansas, and the two sides began fighting a mini-Civil War known as “Bleeding Kansas.” John Brown, an abolitionist, executed 5 pro-slavery supporters in a midnight execution. Fighting between pro-slavery and anti-slavery supporters continued throughout 1856, until federal troops were called in. President Franklin Pierce urged Kansas to be admitted as a slave state in 1858, and tensions were at an all-time high, but Congress refused. Kansas finally entered the Union in 1861 (during the Civil War) as a free state. Violence in the Senate broke out after Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner insulted South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler. A few days later, Butler’s nephew, Representative Preston Brooks, attacked Sumner in the Senate, beating him unconscious with a cane.

310 Sectionalism Political Parties: Election of 1856:By 1852, the two outspoken members of the Whig Party, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, were dead. The Party ran Winfield Scott for President but lost to Democrat Franklin Pierce. By the mid-1800s, the country had faced an influx of new immigrants. For the first time, Catholicism became the nation’s largest religion. The secretive Know-Nothing Party existed to promote anti-immigrant, anti- Catholic, and nativist principles. The party became publicly known as the new American Party. The Democrats remained a strong political party but slavery divided the party into the Northern Democrats, who favored popular sovereignty in the western territories, and the proslavery Southern Democrats. With other parties dividing up, all of the previously existing anti-slavery parties combined to form the new Republican Party (which attracted anti-slavery Democrats, Whigs, Free-Soilers, and Know-Nothings). Election of 1856: Republicans nominated abolitionist John C. Frémont and the Democrats nominated the “dough-faced” (northerner with pro-southern tendencies) James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. The Know-Nothings supported Millard Fillmore. The Republicans were strong in the North and nearly non-existent in the South. In the election of 1856, the Republican slogan became “Free Soil, Free Speech, and Frémont” and the party opposed popular sovereignty. The election was a division between North and South, but Buchanan won and became the fifteenth president.

311 Dred Scott Dred Scott: Lincoln v. Douglas Debates:Dred Scott was a slave owned by Doctor John Emerson in Missouri (slave state). In the 1830s, Emerson and Scott moved to Illinois (free state) and then to the Wisconsin Territory (free territory). Finally they moved back to Missouri. In 1846, antislavery lawyers sued for Dred Scott’s freedom since he lived in a state and territory that banned slavery. The case took 11 years to decide, but when the Supreme Court finally ruled on it in 1857, it was one of the worst decisions in Supreme Court history. Accusations were made that President James Buchanan talked Associate Justice Robert Cooper Grier (of PA) into siding with the South. In March 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled: Dred Scott was still a slave and since he was property, and not a citizen, he could not sue at all. Taney went on to rule that no African Americans were citizens (free or slave), and therefore, none could use the court system and sue. He also said that it was unconstitutional for Congress to try to regulate slavery in the territories. Finally, he ruled that the Constitution protected slavery because of the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, which says that nobody’s property can be taken away without due process of law. Therefore, the Missouri Compromise’s restriction on slavery was unconstitutional. The country was now deeply divided between North and South on the issue of slavery. Lincoln v. Douglas Debates: In 1858, the Senate race in Illinois between Republican Abraham Lincoln and Democrat Stephen A. Douglas was the center of national attention. Douglas was a well-known lawyer and politician but few knew Lincoln. It turned out that Lincoln was a lawyer who had risen from poverty after being born in a log cabin in Kentucky to become a politician. He disliked slavery but saw no easy way to deal with it. Lincoln and Douglas met 7 times to debate the major issue of the day- the expansion of slavery into the territories. Douglas’s Position- popular sovereignty and states rights. Lincoln’s Position- spoke of morality and right versus wrong. He suggested that the Dred Scott case and popular sovereignty were also wrong. While he ridiculed the idea of equality of the races, he strongly supported natural rights for all. Douglas finally won the Senate seat by a slim margin, but Lincoln gained in reputation and gained a large following.

312 Quick Check Describe the sectionalism and tension that existed in the country in Was the Civil War inevitable even if Lincoln did not win the presidency in 1860? Explain.

313 Election of Lincoln Harpers Ferry: Tensions were high:Abolitionist John Brown thought that he was an angel sent from God to avenge the evils of slavery. He believed violence was the best way to accomplish his mission. On October 17, 1859, 21 men including Brown, his sons, and 5 free African Americans led a raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) hoping to arm slaves and inspire a massive slave revolt that would destroy slavery in the South forever. The revolt failed. While a few abolitionists sent money or guns to support Brown, they were not willing to join the fanatical Brown on his mission. Brown was arrested, convicted of treason, and with two of his sons, executed. While Republicans denounced Brown for resorting to violence, he was seen as a martyr by some abolitionists. On the day of his execution, Brown made a prophetic prediction: “the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away…without very much bloodshed.” Tensions were high: Sectionalism and conflict were still fresh in the minds of Americans: Kansas, Dred Scott, Fugitive Slave Act, and Harpers Ferry. Southerners were concerned that the North might try to end slavery. In 1860, Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis pushed a bill through Congress that prohibited Congress or any state from interfering with slavery in states where it already existed. Tensions ran so deeply- no matter who was elected president, would the other side accept him? Election of 1860: The issue of slavery divided the country and the election. Northern Democrats supported Stephen A. Douglas and favored popular sovereignty. Southern Democrats supported John C. Breckinridge and favored a policy of federal protection of slavery and its expansion into the territories. The Constitutional Union Party (made up of the Whigs and Know-Nothings) chose John Bell and didn’t take a side on the expansion of slavery. Republicans nominated (the moderate) Abraham Lincoln who believed that slavery should be left alone where it existed but banned from spreading into the territories. Because the Democrats were divided, support for each of them was divided, and Lincoln was ensured the victory. Abraham Lincoln, the Sixteenth President: Lincoln won the election without receiving a majority of the popular votes (40%) but he received 60% of the electoral votes. He won every northern state and none of the southern states. He was not even on the ballot in much of the South. The South was outraged at the outcome of the election.

314 Collapse of the Union South Secedes:Outraged that a president could be elected without winning a single Southern state and feeling immense powerlessness, South Carolina held a state convention in Charleston on December 20, 1860. South Carolina voted to secede from the Union. Its reason: the election of a President “whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery.” They ignored the fact that Republicans did not control the Supreme Court, the Senate, or the House of Representatives. Over the next few weeks, conventions were held throughout the South. Speeches, rallies, public, and private events occurred. Some of the secession commissioners spoke and made it absolutely clear what secession was about: George Williamson (Louisiana commissioner) in Texas- “to secure the blessing of African slavery.” Stephen Hale (Alabama commissioner) to the governor of Kentucky- “secession is the only way to continue the Biblical superiority of the white over black race.” William Harris (Mississippi commissioner)- “[I] would rather see the last of the race die than see equality with the black race.” The following seven states (called by many, “the seven sisters” after the seven daughters or Atlas from Greek mythology) voted to secede: South Carolina (December 20, 1860), Mississippi (January 9, 1861), Florida (January 10, 1861), Alabama (January 11, 1861), Georgia (January 19, 1861), Louisiana (January 26, 1861), and Texas (February 1, 1861). The Confederate States of America- formed by the 7 seceding states on February 5, 1861 in Montgomery, Alabama. Confederate Constitution resembled America’s however it stressed the independence of each state and protected slavery (but it banned the importation of new slaves). Elected Jefferson Davis (of Mississippi) as President. Crittenden Compromises: Some politicians called for a final compromise to keep the country together. Kentucky Senator John Crittenden proposed a constitutional amendment allowing slavery south of the Missouri Compromise line in the territories. It was too late. Both Lincoln and Davis agreed on that. Davis announced that “the time for compromise has passed.” He went on to say that anyone who opposes secession “will smell southern powder and feel southern steel.” Lincoln was sworn in as president on March 4, 1861. Lincoln faced a difficult decision immediately upon becoming president on what to do about secession. If he acted too forcefully, the remaining southern states might also leave, and if he did nothing, the country could have been completely destroyed. In his inaugural address, Lincoln said: “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists.” He went on: “No state…can lawfully get out of the Union.” He pled with the South to reconsider and suggested that he would do everything in his power to hold the country together. If war resulted- it was not his doing.

315 Quick Check Was the South justified in leaving the Union after the election of Lincoln? Explain.

316 Problem 47: Dred Scott Dred Scott v. John F. A. Sanford (1857).https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=29&page=transcript Is the reasoning of the court racist? Did the Founding Fathers intend for African Americans to be citizens? How does the court make the argument that they did not? In the end, why did the Supreme Court rule against Dred Scott?

317 Problem 48: Declaration of SecessionDeclaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina From the Federal Union, December 20, 1860. What reasons did South Carolina give for secession? Is the ultimate reason for South Carolina’s secession the threat to slavery imposed by the Republicans/the North/Abraham Lincoln? Explain.

318 Problem 49: Lincoln’s First Inaugural AddressAbraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861. What did Lincoln hope to accomplish with his inaugural address? How would you describe Lincoln’s tone towards the South? What does Lincoln say about slavery? What does Lincoln say about secession? How do you think the leaders of the Confederacy might have reacted to this speech?

319 Lesson Objectives Lesson 50: Review- Students will review and refine their understandings of the unit content objectives. Lesson 51: Unit Test- Students will demonstrate understanding of the unit objectives through a unit test.

320 United States History IUnit IV: Civil War & Reconstruction

321 Lesson 52 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how the Civil War began at Fort Sumter; Explain how Lincoln kept the slaveholding border states loyal to the Union; Explain the fundamental historical question about the Civil War and the causes of the Civil War; Explain the Advantages and Disadvantages that the North and the South had at the start of the War; Describe the Union’s Anaconda Plan; Explain what occurred at the First Battle of Bull Run; Explain Lincoln’s frustration with McClellan early in the war; and Describe the early battles of the war in 1862 in the west, south, southwest, at sea, and in the east.

322 Fort Sumter Fort Sumter: A Short War?Fort Sumter was one of four federal forts that was not immediately seized by the Confederates after secession. It guarded Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. By April 1861, Fort Sumter badly needed supplies. Lincoln notified South Carolina that he was going to re-supply the fort with food (no arms). South Carolina responded with a threat. Either surrender the fort or the Confederates would open fire. On April 12, 1861, before the Fort could be reinforced, President Jefferson Davis ordered his men to attack the Fort. With that, the Civil War had begun. Fort Sumter surrendered on April 14, 1861, and Virginia (April 17, 1861), Arkansas (May 6, 1861), North Carolina (May 20, ), and Tennessee (June 8, 1861) seceded and joined the Confederate States of America. On April 15, 1861, Lincoln declared that an “insurrection” existed and called for 75,000 volunteers to fight for the Union. A Short War? Both sides predicted a short war…both were quite wrong. Fundamental Question Historians Ask about the Civil War: Was it Inevitable? Generally speaking there are two schools of thought: 1. “Irrepressible conflict”- first used by William Seward in a speech in 1858; this was going to happen no matter what; it was inevitable and couldn’t be avoided. 2. “The Blundering Generation”- the Civil War was not inevitable; if it was approached in a different way, it could have been avoided, but missteps and mistakes by the people involved in the leadership of the country led to the conflict. What was the Fundamental Cause of the Civil War? 1. Region differences between the North and the South (economic differences); and 2. Generally speaking- slavery played a fundamental role.

323 Quick Check Was the Civil War inevitable or was it the result of a “blundering generation”?

324 North & South AdvantagesAdvice Lincoln Received: General Winfield Scott: “[let the] wayward sisters depart in peace.” Secretary of State William Seward: “let the erring sisters go.” Lincoln felt obligated to keep the country together and uphold the Constitution at any cost but he never accepted that the South seceded, broke away from the country, or formed its own country. This was impossible under the Constitution. Throughout the entire war, Lincoln considered the South to be merely in a state of rebellion against the government. Both the North and South had advantages and disadvantages at the start of the war. North’s Advantages: Controlled 2/3 of the states: 19 free states; and 4 slaveholding border states DE, MD, KY, MI (and later WV when it seceded from VA); Population of 21 million compared to the South’s 9 million (3.5 million of whom were slaves); 90% of the nation’s industry and manufacturing enabled it to produce more arms, ammunition, uniforms, medical supplies, and railroad cars; Most of the nation’s natural resources (coal, iron, steel mills, etc.); 20,000 miles of Railroads (uniform gauge) compared to only 10,000 in the South (not of uniform gauge in the South); 3/4 of the nation’s capital; and The North controlled the navy and merchant marine (which would enable it to blockade Southern ports). South’s Advantages: Controlled 11 states (geographically compacted) fighting for their way of life, whereas many in the North would rather let the South go than die over it; Fighting a defensive war, whereas the Union had to stage a successful invasion, conquer, and occupy in order to succeed (The South just had to defend and wear down the North until the North gave up); A strongly held interior where the Union had a harder time communicating; Good defensive positions, using the familiar local geography (mountains and rivers); A strong military tradition and strong military leaders like Thomas “Stonewall Jackson” and Robert E. Lee, while the North struggled to find competent military leaders; More acquainted with an outdoor life- more suited for war (riding horses and being outside); and The South had important friends in Great Britain and France, which had a connection to the Southern “Aristocracy” and depended on Southern cotton.

325 Early Strategies Anaconda Plan- General Winfield Scott (age 74) took command of the Union forces and introduced his 2-part “Anaconda Plan.” 1. Blockade- a naval blockade of Southern ports would not allow anything in or out, and like a snake, it would squeeze the Confederates out of their income and supplies. 2. Take control of the Mississippi River, dividing and weakening the Confederacy into surrender. Many, including Lincoln, thought the Anaconda plan was too timid and favored a massive and decisive quick victory. Nevertheless, the Anaconda Plan became a central strategy of the Union. The major problem with the Anaconda Plan was the lack of ships in the navy. At the start of the war the navy had only 42 warships (only 3 were steam-powered) and 7,600 sailors. By the end of the war the navy had 264 ships and 22,000 sailors, which still was not enough to succeed with the Anaconda Plan. Lincoln’s Task of Keeping the Slaveholding Border States Loyal to the Union: Lincoln faced the tricky situation on how to avoid losing the slaveholding border states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri from seceding and joining the Confederacy. Lincoln repeatedly insisted that his only goal was to save the Union (this was true early in the war). He said, “I believe I have no lawful right to [free the slaves], and I have no inclination to do so.” A Quick note on the names of Battles- the Union named battles after nearby creeks and rivers, whereas the Confederates named them after prominent nearby farms. This is why there are often two names. After Fort Sumter, newspapers across the North called for a quick and decisive victory to force the South to surrender. Nobody realized how long and bloody the war would be. Picnickers and photographers arrived to the hill overlooking Bull Run early for the best seats to watch the first (and some thought, the only) battle that the war would feature. This was the first war where photography documented the blood, death, and devastation of war and greatly impacted public opinion. First Battle of Bull Run (Confederate: First Battle of Manassas)- 25 miles from Washington, D.C.. Early on July 21, 1861, General Irvin McDowell and 35,000 Union soldiers met General P. G. T. Beauregard and 32,000 Confederates near a creek in Manassas, Virginia (each side used only about 18,000 soldiers in the engagement). By noon, the Union troops had opened fire and took a early lead in fighting against the Confederates, but in the with his men and eventually sent the Union soldiers scrambling back to Washington, D.C. early afternoon, a determined Confederate General, Thomas J. Jackson, made a strong stand The stand earned Jackson the nickname “Stonewall” Jackson. Confederate General Barnard Bee observed, “Look at Jackson standing there like a stone wall!” The name stuck. The Confederates defeated the Union at Bull Run and it became clear to everyone that the war would take much longer than previously believed.

326 First Year of War George B. McClellan: West: South: Southwest: At Sea:After the Union loss at the First Battle of Bull Run, President Lincoln replaced General McDowell with General George B. McClellan, who would now lead the Union’s Army of the Potomac. West: Union troops, under Ulysses S. Grant followed the Mississippi portion of the Anaconda Plan in early 1862, winning key battles in the west including Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. On April 6-7, 1862, in just two days of fighting, 25,000 Union and Confederate soldiers died at the Battle of Shiloh before the Confederates finally retreated. Grant was criticized after the battle for not pursuing the retreating Confederates when he had the chance late on April 7 (an hour before dark). South: Union ships under the command of David Farragut sailed through the Gulf of Mexico, seized, and took control of the port city of New Orleans. Farragut pushed up the Mississippi River towards Vicksburg, Mississippi in his attempt to meet Grant but Farragut was stopped 50-miles from Vicksburg. Grant was also stopped short of Vicksburg in his pursuit southward. Southwest: Although the west was important to both sides during the Civil War, little attention was paid to it. Small-scale fighting did occur as far as Arizona. Between March 22-28, 1862, the Confederates attacked and fought a small battle against Union forces at Glorieta Pass in the northern New Mexico Territory. Eventually the Confederates lost the battle and were forced back into Texas. The Confederates did not attempt another attack in the Southwest for the rest of the war. At Sea: Few battles took place at sea besides the famous March 8, 1862 battle of the Ironclads at the Battle of Hampton Roads. The ships were called ironclads for the plated iron armor that surrounded them. The Union ship, the USS Monitor, and the Confederate ship, the CSS Virginia (which was a refitted former Union ship called the USS Merrimack), fought a four-hour battle off of the coast of Virginia, neither seriously damaging the other. East: The fighting in the East centered in Virginia and Stonewall Jackson won several small victories for the Confederates in the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. The Union army under McClellan was far too cautious. McClellan avoided several engagements in which he had the upper hand, always believing that the Confederates outnumbered him and his troops were unprepared for battle. McClellan constantly demanded more troops and supplies, greatly angering Lincoln. By the end of 1862, McClellan reluctantly fought the Peninsular Campaign outside of Washington, D.C. The Union pushed the Confederates back to Richmond. Once in Richmond (the Confederate capital) the Confederates launched a series of offensive battles from June 25- July 1, 1862 during the Battle of Seven Pines or (Battle of Seven Days). Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was injured in the battle and replaced by Robert E. Lee in command of the Army of Northern Virginia. The battles were not conclusive victories for either side but in the end, McClellan retreated back to Washington, D.C.

327 Quick Check In an August 22, 1862 letter to newspaper editor Horace Greeley, Lincoln plainly stated his position on slavery: “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union.” Given his early position in the war, is Lincoln an over-rated president?

328 Lesson 53 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how Union troops treated the slaves they encountered throughout the South; Explain Lincoln’s emancipation plans that he developed in 1862; Explain what the Emancipation Proclamation said and what it did in practice; Explain how the Emancipation Proclamation was a turning point in the war; Explain Lincoln’s justification for freeing the slaves as part of his wartime powers; Explain how the Union began using African Americans in the war; Describe conscription regulations in the North and the South; Describe wartime life for soldiers in both the North and the South; Explain how new weapons led to additional human carnage in the war; Explain how the war impacted life in the North and the South; and Describe the roles and duties of women during the Civil War.

329 Slave Encounters Union Troops Meet Slaves:Union officers faced a dilemma- what do you do with slaves in land that comes into Union control? It would be absurd to send them back to their masters. General Benjamin Butler considered slaves under his control to be contraband (captured war supplies) and put them to work doing manual labor for the Union Army. In Missouri, General John C. Frémont set them free. Lincoln reversed Frémont’s emancipation of the slaves, fearing that border states might react by leaving the Union. Lincoln realized that the longer slaves remained with their owners, they helped the South economically and in terms of labor. It became a wartime imperative for Lincoln to free the slaves in order to increase his chances of winning the war. It was within the context of the war…not out of morality…that Lincoln justified freeing the slaves in Confederate lands. If it had not been for the war, Lincoln could not have justified freeing the slaves. Lincoln’s Emancipation Plans: In 1862, Lincoln began planning how he would emancipate the slaves but he needed a major victory on the battlefield otherwise it would look like an act of desperation. On September 8, 1862 Robert E. Lee led an offensive invasion into the border state of Maryland. He hoped to cause a pro-slavery uprising and resupply with food. Carelessly, Lee lost his battle plans and they fell into Union hands. McClellan was prepared and on September 17, 1862, he attacked Lee’s army. The Battle of Antietam ensued. It was the bloodiest single day of the entire Civil War; more than 23,000 soldiers died that day. The Confederates retreated and Lincoln had the victory he needed.

330 Emancipation ProclamationPreliminary Emancipation Proclamation: September 22, 1862, after the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln decreed that all slaves in states still in rebellion against the Union after January 1, 1863 shall be emancipated (or freed). It did not apply to border states or even regions that had already come back into Union control (like New Orleans). None of the Southern states surrendered and the Emancipation Proclamation actually did not free a single slave- the outcome of the war would determine whether or not he succeeded in freeing the slaves. Final Emancipation Proclamation: January 1, 1863 set the slaves free in rebellious states and areas not yet under Union control. Redefinition of the War: The Emancipation Proclamation was a turning point in the war because it redefined the war as a war “about slavery.” The North had a moral cause. The South was now determined to fight until the end. Mixed Opinions: Many rejoiced- now the war took on a moral cause. Many (like William Lloyd Garrison and some Republicans) agued that it had not gone far enough because some men remained in bondage. Many Democrats were angered and argued that it was too drastic.

331 Quick Check How was the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 a turning point in the Civil War?

332 African American SoldiersMilitia Act: On July 17, 1862, Congress passed the Militia Act, allowing African Americans to work as laborers and soldiers for the Union Army. Soon after, abolitionists and the government officials recruited African American volunteers to fill shortages. All African American soldiers were required to fight in “Colored Regiments” under the control of white officers. The Confederates threatened to execute or sell into slavery any African Americans captured in arms against them. They also threatened to execute of any white officer leading African American troops. 54th Massachusetts Regiment was the famous all-African American unit led by Union Colonel Robert Gould Shaw during the Civil War (the movie Glory). By the end of the war 180,000 African Americans had served for the Union. The Confederates considered arming slaves when they desperately needed soldiers, but never did. Military Racism: Low expectations of the new “Colored” troops were quickly dispelled, as they performed well in battle at Port Hudson, Mississippi and at Fort Wagner (54th Mass) in Charleston Harbor. Prejudice continued, however, and many were given menial tasks like cooking, cleaning, digging, long guard duty, and placement in exposed battle positions were death was likely. It took 3-years to earn equal pay. 70,000 African American solders out of 180,000 died in the war. Southern Slaves Help the Union: Passive and active support for the Union came in a number of ways: providing food supplies, serving as guides, spies, or scouts, providing manual labor, and fighting.

333 Wartime Life in the NorthTaxes: For the first time, a federal income tax was charged in order to help pay for the war in 1861. At first it was 3% on income over $800 per year. As the war continued, the tax increased. The Union also raised tariffs, bringing in money and urging people to buy from American businesses. Sale of Government War Bonds- buying bonds was seen as an act of patriotism. The Legal Tender Act of 1862 allowed the Treasury to issue a single paper currency called “greenbacks.” Political Changes: Homestead Act- made 160 acres of land in the west available at a low cost to those who agreed farm it for 5-years. Pacific Railroad Act- granted land to companies to build rail lines through Union territory and to build a transcontinental railroad. Conscription (the draft). In 1863, the Union instituted a draft to fill the need for more troops. All white men between the ages of 20 and 45 had to register for the draft. Alternatively, a man could pay a $300 commutation fee for a replacement or privately hire a substitute. The war relied upon the poor or newly arrived immigrants and not the middle and upper classes. Anger over the draft led to the New York Draft Riot of 1863. Political Opposition: Copperheads (“Peace Democrats”) opposed Lincoln’s conduct of the war and demanded that he immediately make peace with the South. Lincoln suspended the Writ of Habeas Corpus (which protects a person from being jailed without charges being brought against him). Lincoln justified the suspension by citing the wartime state of emergency and impossibility of carrying out all judicial functions during a time of war.

334 Wartime Life in the SouthBlockades Hurt the South: At first, blockade runners (small swift ships) were successful; as the Union gained more ships, the blockade of Southern ports became more successful (about 80% effective). The Southern farms and factories had to produce everything that the South needed. Transportation to the troops or to market was a challenge due to the war. Few Sources to Pay for the War: The South’s wealth was in land and slaves; very little money existed to pay for the war or to pay troops. Troops often stole, took from the dead, or combed the battlefields for supplies. Confederate money was printed (based only on the government’s promise to pay) and most people doubted its value. Prices for goods soared and more Confederate cash was required for basic goods, leading to inflation. Hardships and lack of food began to harm Southern unity. Some states refused to raise additional troops or send their men out of state to fight. The government passed conscription laws, confiscated private property, and suspended the Writ of Habeas Corpus. Conscription Law: in 1862, the South instituted a draft to fill the need for more troops. All white men between the ages of 18 and 35 had to register for the draft. Alternatively, a man could pay a commutation fee for a replacement or privately hire a substitute. Any man who owned 20 or more slaves was exempt from the draft.

335 Quick Check Was the Civil War fought for the benefit of the rich or poor? Who fought the war? Was this different or similar in the North and in the South?

336 Soldiers During the WarFaced a mixture of adventure, travel, danger, comradeship, pride, and hardship. 50% of all eligible men in the North fought and 80% of all eligible men in the South fought in the war. Daily marching and drilling were occasionally interrupted by brief periods of fighting. Soldiers were often homesick and bored. They passed the time writing letters, playing games, and praying. Families were often divided with family members on both sides of the war. New Weapons: In 1861, federal arsenals were stocked with older weapons from the Mexican-American War. During 1861, the world’s weapons makers increased the technology of killing with high velocity weapons: percussion rifle-muskets that fired Minnie balls. Minnie Ball (named after the Frenchman Claude Minnie) were elongated and shaped like a bullet; they were easier to load and had a hollowed base, filled with gases; when it was fired it expanded in the musket and spun (spiral shaped). The spiral shape gave the shot more accuracy. Heavy artillery gave the advantage to those who occupied fortified locations. New weapons caused terrible carnage and amputations were often the only way to save a soldier’s life. Unfortunately, good sanitation did not exist at field surgical hospitals and many soldiers died of infection. Camps: No sanitation; infectious disease was common; water was unsafe to drink. For every soldier that died on the battlefield, two died of disease. Prisoner of war camps were over-crowded and under supplied. Prisoners caught diseases and were emaciated from starvation (the camp at Andersonville, Georgia is the infamous example where 12,000 Union prisoners died in 15-months).

337 Women During the War The Civil War provided women a role in public life. Women replaced men at work: Family businesses, farms, and plantations. Occupations previously restricted to women now allowed them- teaching. Some women disguised themselves as men and fought in the war. More often women joined their husbands at military camps cooking, doing laundry, and tending to the wounded. Nurses- development of nursing as a profession intensified as a result of war. Clara Barton: Founded the American Red Cross. She collected medical supplies and distributed “comforts to the sick and wounded on both sides. United States Sanitary Commission- women were authorized to oversee hospitals and sanitation in military installations. This was the birth of federal responsibility for public health even after the end of the war.

338 Quick Check How did the Civil War impact women?

339 Problem 50: Emancipation ProclamationAbraham Lincoln, Emancipation Proclamation, January 1863. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=34&page=transcript What did the Emancipation Proclamation do for the slaves of the U.S.? Did it free all of the slaves? Explain.

340 Lesson 54 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the important battles in the western theater (along the Mississippi River) during the Civil War; Describe the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville in Virginia during the Civil War; Discuss Lincoln’s problems with his top generals during the Civil War; Describe the Battle of Gettysburg and explain how it was a turning point in the Civil War; Explain how the Gettysburg Address re-focused the Civil War on the ideals of liberty; Explain what a total war is and its objectives; Explain Grant’s mission to bring the Civil War to an end; and Describe Sherman’s March to the Sea.

341 War Along the Mississippi RiverFighting Along the Mississippi River: The Anaconda Plan required the Union to take control of the Mississippi River; much of the fighting in the west tried to accomplish this goal. The Confederates still controlled two key locations along the Mississippi River: Port Hudson, Louisiana and Vicksburg, Mississippi. Vicksburg: The fortress was well-positioned on high ground on the edge of the Mississippi River, from which gunners shot with deadly accuracy. The Union could not pass along the Mississippi River without taking the fort. In 1863, Ulysses S. Grant decided the only way to win at Vicksburg was to cut off all supplies and engage in a siege of the fort. A siege is a military tactic in which an enemy surrounds and cuts off all supplies and reinforcements from reaching the besieged location. For more than a month (starting on May 8, 1863), the Union sieged the fort and the guns continued firing on the fort from the land and river. The lack of supplies weakened the Confederates in the fort. Finally on July 4, 1863, Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton surrendered the fortress to the Union forces under Grant. Port Hudson: From May 22, 1863 to July 9, 1863, the Union, under General Nathaniel Banks, engaged in a siege of Port Hudson. Hearing about the surrender of Vicksburg a week earlier, Confederate General Franklin Gardner surrendered Port Hudson to the Union as well. In July of 1863, the Union finally controlled the Mississippi River and divided the Confederacy in half.

342 Fredericksburg & Chancellorsville, VirginiaGeneral George McClellan: On paper, McClellan was the Union’s best and brightest general. Unfortunately, he was reluctant to lead his troops into any engagement unless victory was certain. On November 5, 1862, Lincoln formally replaced McClellan for failing to pursue Lee back into Virginia after the Battle of Antietam. The new command of the Army of the Potomac was General Ambrose Burnside. Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia: Shortly after earning the title of commander of the Army of the Potomac, Burnside found himself in a battle that he should have won against Confederate Generals Robert E. Lee, “Stonewall” Jackson, and James Longstreet. On December 11-15, 1862, the Battle of Fredericksburg took place. The Union had 120,000 troops to the Confederate’s 80,000. The Union engaged in a frontal assault against entrenched Confederate defenders on high ground. It was a deadly mistake. Union casualties (12,653) were more than twice that of the Confederates (5,377). Questions about Lincoln’s war strategies and his choice in military leaders was immediately called into question and would remain so for much of the rest of the war. Lincoln replaced Burnside one month later with General Joseph Hooker. Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia: From April 30-May 6, 1863, General Hooker faced off against General Robert E. Lee and General “Stonewall” Jackson, this time at Chancellorsville, Virginia. The Union had nearly twice the number of soldiers that the Confederates had, yet the Union lost in another embarrassing defeat as Lee split his forces to force Hooker to divide his forces as well. The Confederates won a decisive battle at Chancellorsville but it came at a high cost in terms of casualties and the loss of Lee’s favorite general, “Stonewall” Jackson, who was killed by friendly fire. Lincoln feared the public opinion after the defeat and he paced the room nervously saying, “What will the country say? What will the country say?” United after victory and seeing an opportunity to end the war quickly after the Battle of Chancellorsville, Robert E. Lee marched his men back into Union territory. He would soon face off in a bloody 3-day battle at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

343 Quick Check What problems did Lincoln face in early 1863? How did he address those problems?

344 Gettysburg Lincoln Changed Generals Again:After the defeat at Chancellorsville, Lincoln replaced General Hooker with General George Meade and ordered him to engage the invading Confederates in Pennsylvania. Battle of Gettysburg- A Turning Point: General George Meade (mediocre general at best) v. General Robert E. Lee (the two knew each other well and studied together at West Point). On June 30, 1863, Union soldiers under General John Buford headed to the town of Gettysburg to obtain shoes from a nearby factory. The Confederates under General J. Johnston Pettigrew noticed the Union soldiers. Day 1: On July 1, 1863, a Confederate reconnaissance force under General Henry Heth engaged Union troops near three ridges west of town: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge, and Seminary Ridge. The goal of Union General Buford was to buy time for his infantry reinforcements in order to prepare strong defensive positions on nearby Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp’s Hill. By the end of the day’s fighting, the Confederates pushed the Union forces in the field back to Cemetery Hill and Culp’s Ridge. Day 2: On July 2, 1863, as reinforcements arrived on both sides, the Confederates attacked the Union in the Peach Orchard, defeating General Sickles, whose men retreated to higher ground. The Confederates also attacked the Union on the heights of Little Round Top against Bowdoin College rhetoric professor, Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain (who ordered a bayonet charge after his ammunition ran out that shocked everyone) but failed to overtake the Union troops there because of their superior defensive positions. The Union held all of their positions by the end of the day except for Culp’s Hill. Day 3: On July 3, 1863, Lee believed that too much blood had already been shed to retreat and so the third day would be the final massive assault on the dug in Union lines atop Cemetery Hill. General George Pickett ordered his 12,500 men to charge up the hills and attempt to overtake the center of the Union forces. Pickett led three charges up the hill. By the end of his third charge only 5,000 of his men were still alive. After the Union victory at Gettysburg, Lee retreated back to Virginia and Meade failed to pursue him. Lincoln was furious that Meade did not finish the job but the battle was a major victory for Lincoln and the Union.

345 Turning Point in the WarGettysburg Address: On November 19, 1863, Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg to help dedicate the Soldiers’ National Cemetery. The key note speaker was Edward Everett, who spoke for two hours. Lincoln spoke next for a few minutes and delivered his 268-word Gettysburg Address. The speech gave the nation a purpose and plan for the days ahead. “We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain- that this nation under God, shall have a new birth of freedom- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” Results of Gettysburg: The total death toll over the three days at Gettysburg was nearly 50,000 men (about half on each side). Nearly one- third of Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia were killed in the battle. After Gettysburg- all signs pointed towards a union victory. Southern Railroads had almost completely stopped. Southern hopes to gain recognition from Britain or France were now gone. Southern will to fight suffered after Gettysburg, nevertheless, the Confederacy fought on for another year. The Union plan would be a total war, an advance on all fronts, and to use its superior resources to grind the rebellion to a halt. After his victory at Vicksburg (1-day after the victory at Gettysburg), Lincoln recalled General Ulysses S. Grant back to Washington, D.C. in order to give him command over the whole Union Army. Lincoln saw Grant as the general who were end the war once and for all. Grant’s main troops were to focus on attacking the Army of Northern Virginia. Sherman’s troops were to advance on Georgia and take Atlanta.

346 Total War As General Ulysses S. Grant took control of the Union war effort, he promised to grid the war to a halt. Grant planned to attack Richmond and ended up fighting battles at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Courthouse, and Cold Harbor. Grant’s goal was inflict more casualties on the Confederates than their limited resources could withstand. Grant became known as the “butcher of men.” His relentlessness cost numerous Union lives but ultimately, he was holding true to his promise, to bring the war to an end. The public outcry over all of the death and carnage was extreme; Lincoln believed that it would cost him reelection in 1864. Total War- military strategy in which an army attacks not only enemy troops but also the economic and civilian resources that support them. The goal was to wear down the Southern will to fight. Sherman’s March to the Sea: In May, 1864, General William Tecumseh Sherman set out from Tennessee with 60,000 troops on a 250-mile mission to capture the port of Savannah, Georgia. Along the way, Sherman’s troops burned fields and looted supplies. They destroyed anything of value left behind. They tore up railroad tracks, destroyed buildings, and vandalized homes. On September 2, 1864, Sherman’s troops occupied Atlanta and then burned the city to the ground. Lincoln Wins Reelection: Although Lincoln believed that he would lose reelection to former General George McClellan (and even had his cabinet promise to see the war through to the end), the late battlefield victories convinced people to reelect Lincoln. McClellan ran for the Democrats and promised that if he was elected he would bring the war to an end with a negotiated peace. Lincoln’s reelected ended the Confederacy’s hope for a negotiated peace and meant that they would have to win the war in order to keep their way of life and slavery.

347 Quick Check How was the Battle of Gettysburg a turning point in the Civil War?

348 Problem 51: Gettysburg AddressAbraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863. Why did Lincoln give the Gettysburg Address? What was Lincoln’s main point? Why has the Gettysburg Address become so important in American history?

349 Lesson 55 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe Grant’s march to Richmond in1864 and the battles that led up to the Siege of Petersburg; Describe the Siege of Petersburg, Lee’s attempted escape, and the surrender at Appomattox Court House; Describe Lincoln’s last few days on Earth; Explain John Wilke’s Booth and his co-conspirator’s assassination plot, the assassination of Lincoln, and the aftermath of the assassination; and Explain the results of the war, including the long-term costs associated with the war on the South, its economy, politics, and way of life.

350 End of the War Grant’s March to Richmond: Siege of Petersburg:General Ulysses S. Grant, now in command of the Union Army, marched towards Richmond (the Confederate capital) in the summer of 1864, which featured several long and bloody battles and had little to show for it. The Wilderness (May 5-7): Bloody but inconclusive battle. Grant disengaged to continue pushing his army towards Richmond (Casualties- Union 17,666 & Confederate 10,830). Spotsylvania Courthouse (May 8-21): Another bloody but inconclusive battle. Grant disengaged to continue pushing his army towards Richmond (Casualties- Union 18,399 & Confederate 12,062). Cold Harbor (May 31-June 12): In a lopsided Confederate victory, Grant executed a frontal assault on well-entrenched Confederates. Grant would later regret this strategy. (Casualties- Union 14,932 & Confederate 4,847). Second Battle of Petersburg (June 15-18): Four days of fighting resulted in few gains for the Union. (Casualties- Union 10,600 & Confederate 4,600). Siege of Petersburg: After the Second Battle of Petersburg and a long and costly overland campaign, Grant concentrated his troops around Petersburg, Virginia and executed a siege of the town. For the summer, fall, and winter, the Union executed a 10-month and 30-mile siege around Petersburg, Virginia. Both sides fortified their positions and defenses. Fighting over the 10-month period cost 40,000 Union casualties and 28,000 Confederate casualties. Unlike Grant, who had replacement troops in reserve, Lee had run out of men and run out of options. Peace Talks: In early 1865, President Lincoln and Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens met to discuss the feasibility of peace but little was accomplished due to the newly proposed Thirteenth Amendment. Thirteenth Amendment- proposed to outlaw slavery in the U.S. (ratified in December, 1865). Lincoln’s goals for reunification of the country were generous to the South. Unlike so many Republicans in Congress, who wanted to punish the South for the war. Lincoln planned to re-build the nation “with malice towards none.” Confederate Surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. On April 2, 1865, Lee attempted a retreat from Petersburg but his men were starving, exhausted, and without sufficient supplies. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House. Small battles continued on until June but the surrender at Appomattox was, for all intents and purposes, the end of major fighting in the Civil War.

351 Quick Check Did Grant live up to his nickname as the “butcher of men”?Was the siege of Petersburg a successful strategy?

352 Lincoln’s Last Day April 11, 1865: April 14, 1865 (Good Friday):Lincoln told his wife about a premonition of death that he had. He described it as a death-like stillness in the air, invisible mourners, no living people, and a corpse in White House guarded by soldiers. Lincoln asked one of the soldiers who had died and the soldier said the president was dead from an assassination Lincoln knew assassination was a real possibility. April 14, 1865 (Good Friday): Lincoln went to several meetings as usual. He met with his Cabinet. He met with General Grant, who gave Lincoln details of Lee’s surrender and said that he hoped to hear from General Sherman soon. Lincoln expressed a hope that he could establish a reconstruction and reconciliation plan before Congress could get involved and implement more vindictive policies towards the South. Lincoln told his Cabinet that he “hoped there would be no persecution, no bloody work, after the war was over.” Regarding the rebel leaders, he continued, that he “would [not] take any part in hanging or killing those men, even the worst of them.” It was very clear that Lincoln would not take part in any vengeance towards even the most ardent Confederates. Grant stayed after the meeting to apologize to Lincoln for canceling his plans to join Lincoln at the theater that night. In the afternoon, Lincoln went for a carriage ride with Mrs. Lincoln. With the war winding down Lincoln wanted to spend a relaxing evening at the theater. He invited Major Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris to take the place of the Grants at Ford’s Theater that night to see the play Our American Cousin. Hours before Lincoln went to the theater, he signed a bill into law creating the Secret Service (at the time, it was designed to regulate currency and counterfeiting. In 1901, after McKinley’s assassination the Secret Service changed functions to begin protecting the president). Lincoln actually arrived at the theater late. They stopped the play to greet Lincoln as he arrived. Lincoln took his seat in a rocking chair at the back of his private box. During a loud part in the performance, John Wilkes Booth stepped into Lincoln’s box, leveled his derringer, and fired a single shot into the president’s head. He then leapt down onto the stage and shouted, “Sic semper tyrannis!” (“Thus ever to tyrants!”), and fled the theater.

353 Assassination ConspiracyThe Plot: John Wilkes Booth was part of a larger plot among Confederate sympathizers to kill the President, Vice President, and Secretary of State that night. He was the only one who succeeded in his mission. The plan was that Lincoln’s assassination would cause chaos and allow the Confederates to regroup in the war. This never happened. Previous Plots Against Lincoln by the Conspirators: First Plan- was to abduct Lincoln and hold him ransom to in order to release Confederate soldiers. Second Plan- was to abduct Lincoln at Ford’s Theater on a different date, but he never showed up. Third Plan- was to abduct Lincoln in his carriage on the way to a hospital visit, but the trip to the hospital never happened. Last Plan- Booth was fearful that with the war ending that he would not get to unleash his plan. The only thing left to do was to kill Lincoln at the theater. George Atzerodt- was assigned to kill the Vice-President Andrew Johnson but he never followed through. Lewis Powell & David Herold- were assigned to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward. Powell actually went to Seward’s home and attempted to kill him. Many people were involved and injured, but all survived. John Wilkes Booth- was assigned to kill President Lincoln. Booth calmly entered the president’s box (the lock was broken), leveled his pocket Derringer, and pulled the trigger. The Hunt for Booth: Booth was on the run for 11-days before he and Herold were cornered in a tobacco barn. Herold surrendered but Booth wanted to fight it out. Union troops burned the barn and Booth was shot in the neck and paralyzed. He died of his wound the next day. On July 7, 1865, the conspirators were hanged: Herold, Powell, Atzerodt, and Mary Surrat were hanged. Those who helped Booth in his escape were sentenced to life in prison: Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen. Conspirator John Surrat fled to Canada, England, and around Europe, until he was finally caught in Egypt in 1866 (but was set free after trial due to a hung jury and a failure to re-file the indictment within two-years for a re-trial).

354 Results of the Civil WarThe North Wins the Civil War: It wasn’t guaranteed from the beginning, but as time went on, the North had better technology, more resources, and a larger population. It also had Abraham Lincoln’s leadership when things looked bleak and he held the nation together. His decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation changed the meaning of the war. As the war took on a moral cause, people in the North began to see the bigger issue that the war looked to solve and rallied behind the cause. The South used up its resources and people. The war became a war of attrition and the North outlasted the South. The Costs of the War: More than 600,000 Americans were killed. Hundreds of thousands were maimed. Photography brought the horrors of war to common people for the first time in history. Northern industry and manufacturing fueled by the war continued strong after the war but the Southern agricultural system was in ruins. Homes and farms were destroyed; slaves were freed; and a large percentage of middle-aged men were killed in the war. The number of universities increased. The nation passed another protective tariff to encourage buying from American businesses and to limit international competition. In 1865, northern factories, banks, and cities industrialized and the U.S. became a global economic power. The rebuilding of the South was slow and many cities lay in ruins, such as Richmond & Atlanta. White Southerners were disoriented and embarrassed by the loss and African Americans that remained in the South were disoriented with nowhere to go and nobody to turn to other than their previous masters. Many fled to Northern cities rather than turn to the Southern whites. The war proved that secession was not the answer to society’s problems. The period after the Civil War became known as the “Gilded Age.” While many things looked good on the surface- underneath, problems and decay existed. Many people did not receive the freedom that they had hoped for.

355 Quick Check Was the assassination of Abraham Lincoln good or bad for the South?

356 Problem 52: Lincoln’s Second Inaugural AddressAbraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865. What did Lincoln say to the South in his Second Inaugural Address? Would Lincoln have been a good president (if he didn’t get assassinated) to rebuild the country after the Civil War?

357 Lesson 56-59 Objectives Students will be able to: Lesson 56:Explain the human element of war. Describe the hopes, dreams, and goals of the individuals who fought on both sides of the Civil War. Lesson 57: Lesson 58: Use their knowledge about the Civil War and society in the aftermath of the Civil War in order to debate a feasible policy of Reconstruction and Reconciliation for the South. Lesson 59:

358 Lesson 60 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the challenges facing the nation following the Civil War; Describe the South’s economy, social structure, and political situation following the Civil War; Explain the overarching goals of Reconstruction; Describe Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction in the South; Describe the Radical Republican perspective on Reconstruction and the Wade-Davis Bill; Explain Johnson’s goals and actions to reconstruct the South; Explain why Johnson was impeached; Explain how Congress took control of Reconstruction; and Explain each of the laws passed by Congress to reconstruct the South.

359 Challenges of ReconstructionReconstruction- was a program implemented by the federal government between 1865 and 1877 to repair damage to the South, caused by the Civil War, and to restore the Southern states to the Union. Who should lead Reconstruction: the President or Congress? Goals of Reconstruction: Rebuild the Union: What should be done to the political leaders of the Confederacy? Tried for treason? Pardoned? How could the South regain political seats in Congress? Should the Southern states be able to rejoin the Union and regain their seats quickly and with few conditions? Should there be loyalty oaths or new state constitutions that guaranteed African American rights? How to Rebuild the Southern Economy?: The Union army and the war destroyed the Southern economy- how could it be rebuilt? The South’s source of wealth before and after the war was in its land. Who should control the land: the old elite or newly freed African Americans? Could a redistribution of land and employment be the way to fix the South’s economy? Sherman’s “40 acres and a mule” suggestion would redistribute Southern land to the newly freed African Americans. Many thought redistribution of land violated the Constitution and that the government could pay Southerners for their land and then redistribute it. Extend Citizenship, Rights, and Equality to African Americans: The Thirteenth Amendment freed the slaves but did not make them full citizens. African Americans also hoped for the right to vote, education, and other rights. Most Republicans supported giving rights to the freed slaves but white Southerners bitterly opposed the idea.

360 Early Reconstruction PlansAfter the Civil War, the South was under Union Military Occupation. Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan: Lincoln wanted a swift reunion and was lenient towards the South. Ten Percent Plan: In 1863, Lincoln issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. As soon as 10% of the voters of a state took a loyalty oath, the state could set up a new government. If the state constitution abolished slavery and gave education to African Americans, it could regain representation in Congress. Lincoln planned to issue pardons to former Confederates and considered compensating them for lost property. Lincoln never accepted that the South seceded; the Union was unbreakable. Therefore, they were just in a state of rebellion (acting badly). Radical Republicans in Congress & the Wade-Davis Bill: Led by Representatives Thaddeus Stevens and Senator Charles Sumner, the Radical Republicans were Congressmen who advocated full citizenship rights for African Americans along with a harsh Reconstruction policy towards the South. They also favored confiscating Confederate lands and redistributing the land to freedmen. Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which required that the majority of voters in the Confederate states take a loyalty oath before restoration could begin. It also required African American rights and equality. Lincoln vetoed the Wade-Davis bill with a pocket veto (no signature for 10-days when Congress was out of session). Freedmen’s Bureau (Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands)- agency to provide food, clothing, health care, and education to African Americans and poor whites in the South. It also helped reunite families. It gave African Americans rights until it ended in 1872.

361 Johnson’s Attempt at ReconstructionLincoln’s Vice President, Andrew Johnson, becomes President. Johnson’s Plans for Reconstruction: Johnson wanted to restore the South quickly like Lincoln and offered pardons and the return of land to any Confederate who took a loyalty oath. The wealthy planters and Confederate leaders (over $20,000 in property), however (who Johnson resented), had to personally write to him apologizing and requesting presidential pardons. Johnson’s main requirement was that each state had to draft a constitution abolishing slavery and ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment. Johnson did not favor granting African Americans equal rights or the vote. He had little sympathy for their situations. Instead, he believed in states’ rights and would allow each state to decide on the freedoms for African Americans. Black Codes: Under Johnson’s plan, Southerners rebuilt their pre-war world, preventing African American liberties and the right to vote. Black Codes were laws designed to limit the rights of African Americans and keep them as landless workers. Limited employment opportunities: they basically could only be servants or farm laborers. Limited land ownership rights. Vagrancy laws (homelessness laws)- penalty was arrest and labor camp work. Conflict between Radical Republicans and President Johnson: The Radical Republicans did not believe Johnson did enough for the African Americans and he accused Congress of trying to “Africanize” the South. Congress passed a bill giving the Freedmen’s Bureau the authority to punish Southern state officials who did not give African Americans their civil rights. Congress also passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which was a federal law (superseded state law) giving civil rights to all citizens. Johnson vetoed both bills; he now found himself in a war against Congress.

362 Quick Check Which plan would have been best in reconstructing the nation? Explain.

363 Congress Takes Control of ReconstructionLawlessness in the South: Johnson’s plan was too lenient and allowed the South to fall into lawlessness. For the first time in U.S. history- Congress overrode the presidential veto (with 2/3 majority vote) over Johnson’s veto of the Civil Rights Act of 1866; it became law. Radical and Moderate Republicans Unite: For a year, Republicans in Congress drafted sweeping Reconstruction policies. They knew that they had the power to override any presidential veto that Johnson might use. They eliminated Johnson from the equation and instituted their own Reconstruction Plan and there was little anyone could do to stop them. It began with Constitutional Amendments that the President, State Governments, and the Supreme Court would have to follow. Fourteenth Amendment- made African Americans citizens and guaranteed equal protection of the laws to all citizens. It also barred former Confederate officials from holding federal or state office. Military Reconstruction Act of divided the 10 Southern states that had not yet been readmitted into 5 military districts, each governed by a Union military governor. It also spelled out how each state could be readmitted to the Union (new constitutions that guaranteed African American male suffrage and acceptance of the Fourteenth Amendment). Johnson’s Impeachment: In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act- the President needed the Senate’s approval to remove certain people from office. Johnson tried to fire the last Radical Republican in his Cabinet, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, without Senate approval. The House of Representatives impeached Johnson but he was not removed from office by the Senate (which fell 1 vote short of the 2/3 required to convict and remove him). In 1868, Ulysses S. Grant was elected the Eighteenth President. In 1869, Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment (which was ratified in 1870)- now suffrage could not be restricted based on race, color, or previous conditions of servitude. African American men could legally vote but there was a loophole that the South would use to restrict suffrage. The states controlled voting requirements within their own state.

364 Summary of Reconstruction LawsFreedman’s Bureau Act ( )- created a government agency to provide services to freed slaves and war victims. Civil Rights Act of granted citizenship to African Americans and outlawed black codes. Reconstruction Act of divided former Confederate states into military districts. Fourteenth Amendment (1868)- guaranteed citizenship to African Americans and prohibited states from passing laws to take away a citizen’s rights. Fifteenth Amendment (1870)- stated that no citizen could be denied the right to vote because of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Enforcement Act of protected voting rights by making intimidation of voters a federal crime.

365 Quick Check How did the Civil War Amendments (13-15) change America in significant ways during Reconstruction? How does the 14th Amendment continue to provide rights to Americans today?

366 Problem 53: Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty & ReconstructionAbraham Lincoln, Proclamation of Amnesty & Reconstruction, December 8, 1863. What was Lincoln’s Plan for Reconstruction? How would the South have fared if Lincoln’s plan had been adopted? Was Lincoln’s plan a good one? In what ways was it problematic?

367 Lesson 61 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the problems that the South faced after the states were readmitted to the Union; Explain how African American voters in the South transformed the political scene, took local and state offices, and angered Southern whites; Describe those who looked to take advantage of the South’s condition after the Civil War; Describe the opportunities and challenges presented to freedmen during and after Reconstruction; Explain the issues over land use and land distribution; Explain how the different methods of farming worked and how they kept the poor in perpetual poverty; Explain why Southern whites created the KKK and the techniques they used to scare African Americans away from voting and terrorize them and the whites who supported them; and Describe the federal laws that aimed to curb the KKK and its violence.

368 Problems After ReadmissionBy 1870, all former Confederate States met the requirements for readmission under Congress’s Reconstruction program. With African American suffrage, Republicans gained control throughout the South in state legislatures and in Congress. African American Voters: African Americans voted and took political positions in state and local government throughout the South. : 2 African American Senators (Hiram Revels of Mississippi & Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi); and 14 African American Representatives. For a short time, South Carolina’s legislature was ruled by an African American Republican majority. Many white Southerners did not have the right to vote because they refused to take the loyalty oath. No African American was elected to Congress from the North until the 1900s. Opportunity in the South (criticized by Southerners): Scalawags: negative term for a southern white who supported the Republican party after the Civil War. Carpetbaggers: negative term for northerners who moved to the South after the Civil War. Land, opportunity, jobs, and assistance for African Americans. Often young, educated, and ambitious Republicans (some looked to run for political office). Women: Republicans did not support women’s suffrage because they put all of their efforts in African American suffrage. Women did accept jobs in hospitals, relief agencies, and schools in the South though. Public Schools: Required by reconstruction, free public schools (tax-supported) were very costly at a time when the South had little money to spend. The South adopted segregated schools- two schools- one white and one African American (few school districts allowed integration). Other problems in the South: illiteracy, poor medical care, housing, and economic production. Racial violence was everywhere. Bribery & Corruption- political office was seen as a route to wealth through corruption, so politics attracted dishonorable and dishonest men.

369 New Lives for Freedmen Where to Live: Family Lives: Jobs: Education:Some slaves stayed to work for their former masters, but many moved away and felt that they couldn’t really experience freedom if they remained. Cities: schools, churches, and other social institutions. Family Lives: Marriage (often for the first time, legally). Homes & Families. Jobs: Skilled men: carpenters, blacksmiths, cooks, house servants… Women: laundry, child care, domestic work… Most African Americans: lumber, railroad work, and farm labor. Most lived in poor housing situations and received poor food in exchange for their hard labor. Education: Freedmen Bureau Schools: African Americans fled to schools to learn to read, write, and do basic math so that they would not be cheated. ,000 pupils & ,000 pupils. The tuition was 10% of a laborer’s salary. African American Colleges. Northern Churches and Charitable Organizations sent supplies South to help. Religion: African American Church was essential. Served as school sites, community centers, employment agencies, and political rallying points. It developed African American leaders.

370 Quick Check Did newly freed African Americans have many choices in life during reconstruction? Explain.

371 Land Distribution Land was wealth in the South, but it was unevenly distributed: In 1860, the wealthiest 5% owned 50% of the land. Most white Southerners had no land of their own. After the war, millions of poor landless whites competed with millions of poor landless African Americans for land. General Sherman’s plan (40 acres and a mule) and Thaddeus Stevens plan (to confiscate land from the rich and give it to African Americas) never occurred. By 1880, 7% of the South’s land was occupied by African Americans who had purchased it. Sharecropping, Share-Tenancy, & Tenant-Farming: Even large landowners did not have money to pay laborers, so three arrangements developed: Sharecropping: the landowner dictated the crop and provided the laborer with seeds, tools, and a place to live in exchange for a share of the harvest. The owner often bought these on credit with high interest rates. Dishonest owners, fluctuating cotton prices, and perpetual indebtedness kept the sharecropper in a very poor condition. Share-Tenancy Farming: like sharecropping in many ways except the tenant farmer chose the crop and purchased his own supplies. More freedom to choose what to grow, which often included food crops. Easier to save money than sharecropping. Tenant Farming: tenant paid cash to rent land and farmed as he pleased. This allowed for the most freedom but required money to pay rent.

372 Racial Violence Poor White Resentment Against African Americans:Economic competition, African American political power, occupation by federal troops, and outrage at African American rights and suffrage. Ku Klux Klan: Organization that promoted hatred and discrimination against specific ethnic and religious groups (especially against African Americans after the Civil War). Fraternity of former Confederate soldiers started by Nathaniel Bedford Forrest. They roamed the countryside and used terror tactics to harass African Americans and whites who supported them. Dressed in white robes and hoods and mounted on horses, they burned homes, schools, churches, and maimed, beat, and killed people. They also attempted to scare freedmen away from voting. The tactics often succeeded in scaring African Americans away from the voting booths. Federal Response to the Violence: Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871 (also known as the Ku Klux Klan Acts): made it a federal offense to interfere with a citizen’s right to vote. Racial violence at the polls occurred across the country. Hundreds of Klansmen were indicted throughout the South. By 1872, the violence lessened but it smoldered under the surface, ready to reignite in the future.

373 Problem 54: Organization & Principles of the KKKOrganization and Principles of the Ku Klux Klan, 1868. From the stated purpose of this organization, what are the main reasons the organization exists? With the exception of question 6, is there any indication that this organization supports racial prejudice and discrimination? To whom do you suppose this organization would appeal?

374 Lesson 62 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how the attention of politicians in the 1870s shifted away from Reconstruction and towards other issues; Explain the Supreme Court cases that limited the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment and its protections over civil rights; Explain how Southern whites conspired to return to the ways of the old South after federal troops left the South; Explain how Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877 and the Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes; Explain the lasting positive and negative effects of Reconstruction; Explain how the South attempted to limit African American rights through Jim Crow laws, segregation, poll taxes, literacy tests, violence, and intimidation; and Describe the philosophical debate between African Americans reformers such as Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois.

375 Reconstruction Ends Attention Shifts:Congress shifts its focus away from Reconstruction and onto other issues like reforming politics and the economy. The cost of military occupation of the South was an expensive burden on the country. Troops began to be withdrawn starting in 1781. Freedman’s Bureau was dissolved in 1872. Faith in President Ulysses S. Grant faded (as corruption plagued his administration) and the Republican party began to splinter. The generation of abolitionists passed away and nobody stepped forward to take their places. Prejudice returned. Civil Rights Act of 1875: gave African Americans the right to ride trains and use public facilities but didn’t specify the details; these would be left to the courts to decide. Slaughterhouse Cases: Supreme Court cases that chipped away at African American rights in the 1870s. The Court ruled that although a citizen had certain natural rights, the federal government had no control over how a state chose to define rights for its citizens. The ruling weakened the Fourteenth Amendment. In United States v. Cruikshank, 1875 the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment protected citizens only against actions of a state and not from the action of other citizens. “Redeemers” Look to Return the Southern Way of Life: Racism and segregation were used by Southern Democrats to unite the South in order to return white men to political positions. Southern Democrats joined forced with many moderate Southern Republicans to oppose the Radical Republicans. The joint effort of the “Redeemers” attempted to show that African American politicians were corrupt, self-serving, and incompetent to discredit them. Segregation was the rallying cry for the new South and the Democratic Party regained momentum by 1876. Election of 1876: Ohio Republican Rutherford B. Hayes faced off against New York Democrat Samuel Tilden. Both seemed honest and intent on ending political corruption. When Tilden received 51% of the vote, Republicans disputed the counting of votes in the South. In the recount (conducted by Republicans), Hayes won by 1 electoral vote. Democrats then protested. The Compromise of 1877: A commission of 15 men (5 Senators, 5 Representatives, 5 Supreme Court Justices) met and agreed to rule in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes (making him the 19th President of the United States) in exchange for the agreement to remove the remaining federal troops out of the South, a southerner was appointed to a powerful Cabinet post, and Southern states were given subsidies to build railroads and improve their ports. Reconstruction was Over and African Americans were now on their own.

376 Quick Check How did Reconstruction end in the U.S.?

377 Effects of ReconstructionPositive Effects of Reconstruction: The Union was restored; African Americans gained citizenship and voting rights; The South’s economy and infrastructure (railroads and ports) were improved; Southern states established public schools; and There was a gradual shift to a wage-labor system. Failures of Reconstruction: Failed to heal the bitterness between North and South; Failed to provide lasting protections for African Americans; and Segregation, prejudice, and racial violence lasted until the present day. African Americans Gained Choices: Where to live; Land ownership; Occupations; and Politics (voting). The failure of the Fifteenth Amendment to give women the vote led to stronger organizations in favor of women’s suffrage. Political shifts- the Republican Party became known as the “Party of Lincoln” (which freed the slaves), so the Democrats came to dominate the white South. In the end, Congress determined that it was better to let the South attend to its own affairs than to maintain federal military & political control in the South. This would have long-lasting repercussions.

378 Restriction of African American RightsJim Crow Laws: segregation laws enacted by the South following Reconstruction. As soon as federal troops left the South- the South began restricting African American rights again without concern. The South enforced segregation laws in all aspects of life. 1800s Supreme Court cases continued to restrict African American rights. Supreme Court overturned the Civil Rights Act of 1875 and declared that states could determine who could ride trains and use public facilities rather than Congress. As a result, Southern states took the opportunity to enforce segregation. Limitations on Voting Rights: Southern states worked around the Fifteenth Amendment by passing requirements other than race on the right to vote. Poll taxes- required payment of a tax in order to vote. Poor African Americans were therefore excluded. Literacy tests- required people to demonstrate certain abilities such as reading and writing. Uneducated people were restricted from voting. Grandfather Clauses- although poor and uneducated whites would seemingly also be restricted from voting, grandfather clauses stated that a person whose ancestors had voted prior to 1866 or 1867 were exempt from poll taxes and literacy tests. All-White primaries. Violence and intimidation to prevent African Americans from voting. These measures worked. African American participation in politics fell drastically after the end of Reconstruction. By 1940, only 3% of African Americans in the South could vote. Segregation: While some opposed segregation as absurd and financially burdensome to society, it, nevertheless, took hold across the South. In 1896, the Supreme Court rule that “separate but equal” facilities did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson. In reality, separate facilities were rarely equal.

379 African American Leaders Seek reformAfrican American Community Organizations Work For Equality: Newspapers, women’s clubs, fraternal organizations, schools, colleges, and political organizations all worked to change the racist policies of the South. Booker T. Washington: Born a slave in 1856, Washington argued that African Americans should accept the racist policies of Jim Crow because it was a losing cause. Instead, they should focus on building up their economic resources, building good reputations as hard workers, and leading honest lives. He poured his efforts into the Tuskegee Institute, a vocational school for African Americans in Alabama. W.E.B. Du Bois: Du Bois, from Great Barrington, Massachusetts, earned his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1896 and went on to criticize Booker T. Washington for his acceptance of blatant racism. He argued that African Americans should demand immediate equality and not limit themselves to vocational education. Ida B. Wells: Born a slave in 1862 in Mississippi, Wells believed in fighting for African American rights. She worked as a school teacher, was active in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and bought a newspaper called Free Speech, writing many articles criticizing the treatment of African Americans. Nadir: Historians consider the late 1800s to be a nadir (lowest point) in race relations in U.S. History. The realities of racism, prejudice, and discrimination have lasted ever since.

380 Quick Check What was Booker T. Washington’s rationale in accepting racist policies? Was it sound reasoning?

381 Problem 55: Booker T. WashingtonBooker T. Washington, Atlanta Compromise, 1895. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAQhwqUQ5Z4 (Audio) What did Booker T. Washington mean by “cast down your bucket where you are”? What was Booker T. Washington’s main message to African Americans in the South? Do you agree with Washington? Was his method the best way to deal with the problems facing African Americans in 1895?

382 Problem 56: W.E.B. Du Bois W.E.B. Du Bois, “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others,” in The Souls of Black Folk, 1903. What was W.E.B. Du Bois’s response to Booker T. Washington’s Atlanta Compromise? What was W.E.B. Du Bois’s main message to African Americans in the South? Do you agree with Du Bois? Was his method the best way to deal with the problems facing African Americans in 1895?

383 Lesson 63-64 Objectives Students will be able to:Use primary sources to write an essay explaining why Congress’s efforts to ensure equal rights to the freedmen failed. Clearly integrate evidence from the primary sources in writing a cohesive and well-constructed essay on the topic.

384 Lesson Objectives Lesson 65: Review- Students will review and refine their understandings of the unit content objectives. Lesson 66: Unit Test- Students will demonstrate understanding of the unit objectives through a unit test.

385 Lesson 67-73 Objectives Students will be able to:Complete steps in the required U.S. History I Research Assignment, demonstrating their mastery of the skills in each of the steps necessary to find, evaluate, and use historical information in writing a cohesive and convincing historical essay.

386 United States History IUnit V: Industrial Revolution

387 Lesson 74 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how the U.S. had abundant natural resources necessary for industrialization; Describe the technological improvements in the late 1800s in transportation, communication, railroads, electricity, steel production, and railroads; Explain population shifts and the impact of immigration after the Civil War; Describe the role of entrepreneurs in developing businesses in U.S. history; Explain why the South lagged in industrialization while the North’s industry boomed after the Civil War; and Explain the lasting effects of industrialization on the U.S. at the turn of the twentieth century.

388 Abundant Natural ResourcesAmerican Industry Grows: The Civil War forced industry to manufacture goods more quickly and more efficiently. New tools and methods produced guns, ammunition, medical supplies, and uniforms. Food industry began processing food to be shipped over longer distances. Railroads expanded and more efficient methods of power production were introduced. Immigrants filled the additional jobs produced by the Industrial Revolution. Vast Supply of Natural Resources: Coal mines- for steam power. Forests & trees- lumber for buildings & construction. Iron ore- used to make iron (and later steel) for bridges, buildings, railroad tracks, and machines. Rivers- transportation of raw materials. Technological Advances: 1859 Edwin Drakes used a steam engine to drill the world’s first oil well in Pennsylvania (reduced the need for whale blubber). 1850s processing of iron ore into steel became easier (many mines in Pennsylvania). Steel rails encouraged additional railroads to transport natural resources longer distances to eastern cities for processing. Railroads permitted the transportation of raw materials and finished products and linked people and places across the country. Railroads were key to the Industrialization and Urbanization of the U.S.

389 Conditions for Business SuccessPopulation Changes: After the Civil War immigration from Europe and Asia skyrocketed: Pushed from their countries for various reasons- political upheaval; religious discrimination; and crop failures. Pulled to the U.S. by the number of employment opportunities and vast tracts of cheap farm land in the American west. Nearly 1 million immigrants per year arrived in the U.S. by 1905. In the 1890s, farmers faced stiff competition from international competitors and many left for jobs in the cities. Rags to Riches, Opportunity, & the American Dream- hard work can catapult anyone from poverty and obscurity to wealth and fame. Entrepreneurs: businessmen who risk everything to start successful business enterprises and earn a profit. They fueled the industrialization and economic growth of the 1800s. Free enterprise- freedom to run a business with minimal regulation beyond what is necessary to protect the public interest. Competition was rich among competing businesses. Supply, Demand, Price, Elasticity, and Substitution. To reduce costs, businesses looked for efficiencies or innovations in some aspect of production. Laissez-Faire Economic Policies (let it be- “hands off” policies) Helped Businesses: Minimal government regulation. A stable legal system; the protection of personal property; and the right to contract- all led to stability and predictability in business and encouraged business growth. Protective Tariffs- encouraged people to buy American products and support American businesses.

390 Quick Check What things made industrialization possible in the late 1800s?

391 Innovation & New TechnologyPatents: legal protection for invention ideas, giving the inventor the exclusive right to develop, use, and sell inventions for a particular amount of time. Electricity: Inventor Thomas Edison invented the light bulb in In the process of inventing cost effective lighting for rich businessmen, Edison took out 1,000 patents. Electricity extended the number of hours in the day that people could work- changing labor. Communications: In 1844, Samuel Morse perfected telegraph technology. In 1876, Alexander Graham bell patented the telephone. By 1900, there were more than 1 million telephones and 100,000 miles of wire in the U.S. In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the first trans-Atlantic radio signal. News spread quickly and communication for personal and commercial purposes drastically increased business and commerce. Steel: Bessemer Process- in the 1850s, Henry Bessemer, developed a system to purify iron to make lightweight but strong steel. By 1890, the U.S. was out-producing the British steel industry. Skyscrapers and suspension bridges (with steel cables) were now a possibility (the first U.S. suspension bridge was the Brooklyn Bridge, completed in (at the time it was the longest bridge in the world). Train Improvements: In 1869, George Westinghouse patented railroad brakes; in 1887, African American Granville Woods patented a telegraph system for trains; and in the late 1800s, Gustavus Swift developed refrigerated rail cars for transporting food. Time Zones: one problem in rail transportation was that each area set clocks differently. In 1884, delegates from 27 countries met and divided the world into the 24 time zones that we still use today. Commuter Transportation: electric streetcars, commuter trains, and subways. Americans could now live outside of the city and commute to work, leading to the growth of suburbs. Gas-powered cars began production in 1902. In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright invented the first airplane. It traveled 120 feet and was airborne for 12 seconds on December 17, 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

392 Effects of IndustrializationIndustrialization boomed in the North after the Civil War but there were barriers to Industrialization in the New South: The South remained largely agricultural and cash crops like cotton and tobacco continued to be important but prices soon fell once Europe began importing cotton from elsewhere (India, Egypt, & Brazil); It developed a smaller middle-class than the North; South was still rebuilding from the destruction of war; Did not have sufficient access to two of the three requirements of industrial growth: it had plenty of natural resources, but lacked labor and capital investment; It lacked a strong consumer-base to buy finished products; It lacked education to promote technology and innovation; and It did not attract skilled labor because it didn’t pay high wages. Successes in Industry in the New South: Tobacco processing, stone quarrying, and furniture-making. In the1890s, Henry Grady in Atlanta, Georgia called for the South to use its resources and develop industry. New Industries after the Civil War: Textiles in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Cigar production and lumber in North Carolina and Virginia. Coal, iron, and steel production in Tennessee and Alabama. Agriculture remained strong but after the Civil War it became diversified and not as reliant on cotton. Railroads: after the Civil War, Southern rail lines expanded connecting rural and urban areas and connecting to important ports like New Orleans and Charleston. Despite changes, the Southern economy continued to lag behind the North. Effects of Industrialization: U.S. grew as a World Economic Power: exports of grain, steel, and textiles. Mechanization changed life from farming to industry to home life. U.S. moved from family farms to the cities for to work in factories and industry. Mass production meant easy access to products that were previously made by hand but people became dependent on cash wages for food and goods. Pollution began impacting the environment by the late 1800s (industrial waste and mining). In 1872, Congress started the National Park Service and set aside protected land (Yellowstone).

393 Quick Check In what ways did industrialization differ between the North and the South?

394 Lesson 75 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how a corporation is a legal entity, owned by investors, with an interest in making a profit; Explain how and why large corporations developed in late 1800s; Describe how the negotiations and dealings of certain individuals shaped big business and its relationship to competitors and consumers; Evaluate whether the business moguls of the late 1800s were “Robber Barons” or “Captains of Industry”; Explain Social Darwinism; Explain how the government’s laissez-faire economic approach led to big business and the arguments in favor of more government regulation over business; and Explain how Congress tried to find a balance between legitimate business practices and fair competition for consumers through the Sherman Antitrust Act and later business regulations.

395 Corporate Ownership Business before the mid-1800s: characterized by small, local, family-run businesses. Rise of big business: with industrialization, abundant natural resources, and the railroad to connect to larger markets, business owners came together to form large corporations, with larger markets, in order to make more profit. Corporation- a separate legal entity with rights and liabilities separate from each of its members. It is owned by a group of shareholders, who each invested money in the company, with the hopes of sharing in the profits of the company if it is successful according to their percentages of ownership. Shareholders can lose no more money than what they invested. If the company has more liabilities than assets, it simply fails and the investments are used to pay off some of the liability, but it does not bankrupt the investors personally. It is the perfect setup for businesses that are not certain to make a profit. Best of all- corporations provided the company with large amounts of capital needed to fund new technology, enter new industries, or run large plants. They could also operate in multiple regions thanks to the railroad and telegraph. The goal of every business is to maximize profits: Corporations advertised, paid low wages to workers, demanded efficient skilled labor, and tried to obtain resources cheaply. They looked for efficiencies to reduce the costs of producing goods or services (sponsored research and invention). Corporations were ruthless in looking for efficiency in production management and any other way to make the corporation more profitable, such as buying out competitors (horizontal integration), driving competitors out of business, controlling different businesses that were involved in the different stages of the manufacturing process (like coal mines, iron ore fields, railroads in the steel industry for example) (vertical integration), or paying railroads not to ship competitor’s products, etc. Monopoly- complete control of a product or service (either by buying out or driving out competitors). Monopolies could artificially increase prices wherever they wanted (so long as substitution of products was not possible) to the consumer because the monopoly eliminated choice in the market. Corporate Trusts- business entities that bought stock in various companies for the benefit of beneficiaries and were managed by a Board of Trustees (often became the loophole for the robber barons to buy out competitors).

396 Quick Check Why is competition in the market good for consumers?How do monopolies hurt consumers? Are there any modern monopolies that exist? If so, what are they?

397 “Robber Barons” or “Captains of Industry”Big Business produced moguls (someone who dominates a particular industry): “Robber Barons” or “Captains of Industry”? Either way, they were the men who built America: Cornelius Vanderbilt- railroad; John D. Rockefeller- oil; Andrew Carnegie- steel. Laissez-Faire governmental policy made big business possible. “Robber Barons” Many small businesses were bought up or squeezed out of competition. People lost their jobs because their businesses could not compete with big business. Big business looked for efficiency in production, and therefore, only kept the best workers and fired the rest. They also paid low wages because there were many people willing to work, and workers were easily replaceable. Monopolies and cartels charged high prices to consumers. “Captains of Industry” Free enterprise flourished. Big business provided a lot of jobs, albeit low paying jobs. Often mass production and other production efficiencies led to lower consumer prices for goods, and therefore, consumer gained access to more goods. The nation’s economy grew strong. Big business stimulated additional innovations and made the U.S. an international leader. Many of the leaders in industry were key philanthropists (donated money to charity, established universities, museums, and libraries). Social Darwinism: In 1859, biologist Charles Darwin published his work, On the Origin of Species, where he argued that animals evolved through a process called “natural selection.” Only the fittest animals survived and reproduced. Those that were not the fittest, died off and went extinct. Social Darwinism- Darwin’s principle of survival of the fittest applied in the American capitalist system (first coined by William Graham Sumner). Some believed that the nation would grow strong as the wealthy and successful survived and the poor did not. They poor were destined to fall by the wayside. Social Darwinism was also used to fuel discrimination.

398 Government Regulates BusinessUnfair Business: Because of their size and wealth, big businesses wielded immense power. They were often the only choice for consumers, as a result of mergers, acquisitions, cartels, and monopolies. Big businesses also sometimes conspired with competitors to divide market shares, determine market production in order to control prices, price fix, or make other agreements that threatened free market competition. Without competition or regulation by the government, big business could charge whatever it wanted, and consumers either paid the price, or did not receive the product or service. American consumers called for the government to end its laissez-faire policies with regards to big business and to start regulating what was “fair” business and what was “unfair.” Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC): In 1887, Congress established the ICC to monitor rail shipping rates for railroads that crossed state lines. The ICC was the first government regulatory agency over businesses, and over the next several decades, Congress created many new agencies to regulate interstate commerce (Constitution Article I, § 8, ¶ 3). Sherman Antitrust Act: In 1890, Congress outlawed any trust that operated “in restrain of trade or commerce among the several states.” At first, courts favored big business whenever the Sherman Act was invoked. However, over time, the courts began to use certain legal tests to determine if an action by a company interfered with competition. If it did, then the court ruled against the business. Debate ensued over government regulation of businesses and courts tried to find an acceptable balance between fair prices, fair wages, worker’s safety on the one side and a corporation’s legitimate quest for efficiencies in doing business in a free-market system on the other.

399 Quick Check How was big business good for America?How was big business bad for America? Were the big business moguls Captains of Industry or Robber Barons? Explain.

400 Problem 57: Sherman Antitrust ActSherman Antitrust Act, July 2, 1890. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=51&page=transcript What is the main purpose of the Sherman Antitrust Act? Should the government get involved in regulating everyday business deals? Explain. Should the government get involved in regulating business deals that take away competition? Explain.

401 Lesson 76 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain the issues that workers attempted to address through the creation of labor unions; Explain the measures that workers took in protest of low wages and bad working conditions; Explain the role that radicals played in the labor movement; Describe the founding and purposes for the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor; Describe the Haymarket Riot, the Homestead Strike, and the Pullman Strike; Explain how early on the courts backed employers against the actions of unions; and Explain how the labor unions split at the turn of the century and many took on socialist principles.

402 Difficulties Facing WorkersProblems Faced by Workers: Low wages and a surplus of workers: Often business owners hired poor immigrants who would work for almost nothing just to have a job. Long working hours: Often factory workers worked 12-hours per day and 6-days per week. Owners clocked working time and fined workers for idle time or when they didn’t work to capacity. Bad Working Conditions: Sweatshops- small, hot, dark, and dirty workhouses. Poorly lit, overheated, and poorly ventilated working spaces in factories. Loss of hearing due to noisy machines and injuries due to faulty machines or poor training. Women & Children: More jobs opened up for women with industrialization (laundress, telegraph operator, and typists). Women often brought their children to work with them- could watch them and they also earned a wage. By 1900, one in five children aged was working rather than attending school. Many children had stunted physical and mental growth. Eventually, social reformers worked to pass new laws to end child labor. Company Towns: Workers often lived in company-owned housing near the factory, sweatshop, or mine and paid the company rent. The company also operated a “company store” from which employees could buy their necessities (often on credit) and it was yet another way that the company could make money. Companies could have employees arrested who didn’t repay their company debt- allowing employers to trap employees in a system of “wage slavery.”

403 Growth of Labor Unions Wages & Working Conditions:Factory workers earned so little that they didn’t even have enough money to buy many consumer goods. The workplace was often unsafe and dangerous to the health of workers. Opposition to Workers’ Complaints: Business owners saw the growth of the labor movement as a threat to their businesses and profits. They saw efforts to improve wages or working conditions as a violation of their rights to run the business as they saw fit. Collective Bargaining: Unions began negotiating as a group with their employer for higher wages or better working conditions. Strikes (group refuses to work) were also used to force employers to make improvements. First Labor Union: 1834 National Trades Union (open to members from all trades). Some goals included a 6-day workweek with 10-hour days. These became the standard for factories. Spread of Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political philosophy that favors public, instead of private, control of property and income. It also valued an equal distribution of a national wealth. Socialism spread through Europe in the 1830s. 1848 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto, denouncing capitalism. Most Americans rejected these ideas as a threat to the American way of life, free enterprise, private property, and individual liberty. Knights of Labor: 1868 labor union founded by Uriah Stephens that included workers of any trade (skilled or unskilled), including women and African Americans. When Terence V. Powderly took over, the union was no longer a secret group and openly used collective bargaining, boycotts, and strikes to win gains for workers. It also aimed for larger social change. American Federation of Labor (AFL): By 1885 the Knights of Labor gave way to the new AFL led by Samuel Gompers. The AFL was a loose organization of approximately 100 unions of skilled labor and devoted to certain fields. The AFL did not aim for larger social changes like the Knights of Labor had. By 1910, the AFL had 2-million members.

404 Quick Check Why did labor unions develop and what did they hope to accomplish?

405 Labor Union Protests Several major labor disputes occurred in cities across America that involved strikes over wage cuts. These often ended with property destruction, the hiring of temporary workers, and police and/or military involvement to bring the demonstrations under control. The Haymarket Riot: In May, 1886, workers in Chicago (including a large group of anarchists (who opposed all government)) went on strike, pushing for an 8-hour workday. Fights between strikers and the police occurred. A bomb was thrown by a protester killing a police officer in Haymarket Square. Dozens of protesters and police were killed in the violence. Employers became suspicious of union members as radicals and for their potential for violence. Homestead Strike: In 1892, workers at a Carnegie steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania went on strike after wage cuts were made. A private police force, called the Pinkertons, was called in and ended up killing several strikers and wounded many others in a two week standoff. Then an anarchist tried to assassinate Carnegie’s partner Henry Frick. Although the plot was not backed by the union, the public associated it with union activity. Pullman Strike: In 1893, the Pullman Palace Car Company (which produced luxury railroad cars) laid off many workers and cut wages by 25% but did not reduce the rents in its company town. When workers met with George Pullman to discuss the situation he fired three workers. Most of Pullman’s other workers went on strike. When strikebreakers were called in, the workers went to the American Railway Union (ARU), founded by railroad worker Eugene V. Debs. Debs called for a nationwide strike and 300,000 rail workers went on strike against any company that used Pullman cars. A federal court ordered the strike to end because the nation’s mail was not being delivered. Deb’s did not abide by the decision, so President Grover Cleveland sent in federal troops. Debs was jailed for conspiring against interstate commerce. On appeal, the Supreme Court upheld the Debs conviction, and ruled that protecting interstate commerce and the private property rights of businesses (railroads) was a lawful exercise of governmental power. Impact of Labor Unions: Businesses used the courts in opposition to labor unions after the Debs ruling. Courts supported businesses for over 30-years. After the Pullman Strike the labor movement split- several branches took a socialist turn. Debs founded the American Socialist Party in 1897, and ran for president in In 1905, he founded the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a radical socialist union.

406 Problem 58: Eugene V. Debs Eugene V. Debs, “Speech of Acceptance,” International Socialist Review (October, 1912). What is the main point of this speech? What is the problem with capitalism according to Debs? Do you agree or disagree with Debs? Explain.

407 Lesson 77 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the “new immigrants” of ; Describe why the “new immigrants” left their homelands, why they chose the U.S., and how they differed from earlier waves of immigrants; Describe the hardships faced by the “new immigrants” in their travel to and new lives in the U.S.; Explain the processing of immigrants that took place at Ellis Island and in San Francisco; Explain the challenges faced by Chinese immigrants; Describe the Americanization Movement and the hostilities that immigrants faced in the U.S. from nativists; and Describe some of the contributions to American Society that immigrants made.

408 Immigration Boom New Waves of Immigrants Come to America in 1870-1920:Push Factors- wars, political revolutions, economic pressures, religious persecution, and because they were refugees. Many left home for a new start in America. Pull Factors- economic opportunity, plenty of land, and employment opportunities. Immigrants were also recruited to work for railroads, mines, oil fields, factories, or harvesting crops. Some came hoping to get rich by finding gold. Many came to join relatives already here (chain immigrants). “New” Immigrants to America between 1870 and 1920 came mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe and were often unskilled, poor, Catholic or Jewish, and likely to settle in cities rather than on farms. Many came from Italy, Spain, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Russia, and Greece, including Russian and Eastern European Jews who fled from religious persecution. Many native-born Americans felt threatened by the newcomers with different cultures and languages. A Land of Opportunity: The journey to America was costly and new immigrants often traveled with only the things that they could physically carry. Many came without any money for their new lives. Most immigrants traveled in the steerage section (the worst accommodations) of large ships across the Atlantic Ocean. Steerage was located in lower decks; it was crowded, dirty, and lacked privacy. Disease spread quickly, and some even died on the journey. Beginning in 1892, Ellis Island was the most frequent port of entry in New York. American officials processed first and second- class passengers on the ship and released them. Next, they processed third class (steerage) passengers and decided who could stay and who couldn’t. In order to stay, immigrants had to show that they were healthy and that they had money, a skill, or a sponsor. Because ships did an initial screening before leaving Europe, only 2% were denied entry. Those approved by the inspectors were issued documents and allowed to take a ferry across to New York City. Immigrants from Asia were processed in San Francisco after crossing the Pacific Ocean. From , most Asian immigrants came from China to work for railroads, in mines, or on farms. By 1882, all Chinese immigrants were turned away unless they could prove that they were American citizens or had relatives in the U.S. In 1910, Angel Island opened to process all Chinese immigrants.

409 Social Issues Facing ImmigrantsChallenges facing immigrants included where to settle, finding work, learning a new language, and learning new customs. Some used agents to assist them in America, but often agents took advantage of them. Americanization Movement: Most new immigrants settled in cities, close to others of their ethnicity, and near factory jobs. Some cities had exclusionary laws requiring immigrants to live in certain ghettoes. Nevertheless, living near others with the same language, customs, and religions was comforting to many immigrants. The neighborhoods also had specialty grocers, shops, and clothing stores. Americanization Programs: programs to help immigrants learn English and adopt American dress and diet. Fraternal Groups: organizations based on ethnic or religious identity also helped people find jobs, housing, and helped them feel at home in America. “Melting Pot”: many believed that America was a great melting pot, where people of various backgrounds and nationalities blended to create a single culture. Building ethnic fraternal lodges and religious institutions made many immigrants feel at home in America; few immigrants returned to their homelands. Children of immigrants were most easily Americanized; with few memories of their homelands they easily adopted American ways and the English language. American Hostility: Many immigrants faced hostility and nativism (tendency of favoring native-born white Americans over immigrants). Nativists used racism and prejudice to link foreigners to criminal tendencies or lower intellectual abilities and used Social Darwinism to discriminate against foreigners. Suspicion, anti-Catholic sentiments, and anti-Semitism only worsened tensions. Some landlords and employers signed contracts agreeing not to rent to or hire Catholics, Jews, or African Americans. Many workers refused to work with them or anyone else that they considered to be “non-native.” Competition for jobs made the situation even more hostile as new immigrants were willing to work for less than native-born Americans would. In 1882, Congress passed a law preventing immigrants who were criminal, immoral, pauper, or likely to need public assistance. This law was easily used for discriminatory purposes. Chinese: Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, which prohibited Chinese immigration, limited Civil Rights of Chinese immigrants already in the U.S., and prohibited the naturalization of Chinese residents. Many Chinese would not chance returning to China to visit relatives in fear that they would not be allowed back into the U.S.

410 Immigrants Impact AmericaImmigrants Transformed the American Economy: Immigrants fueled industrial growth, acquired citizenship, voted, and also made contributions to the new American culture. Their labor helped the U.S. become an economic world power. Contributions to Culture: Immigrants brought new languages, religions, and cuisines into America and influenced society in the process. European Jews brought bagels; Italians brought spaghetti; Germans brought sausages (and hot dogs); and the Chinese brought knowledge on using plants for medicinal purposes. Individual immigrants made important contributions to American society as well: Andrew Carnegie (Scotland) began a steel empire; James Naismith (Canada) invented basketball; Alexander Graham Bell (Scotland) invented the telephone; and Nikola Tesla (Croatia) pioneered the transmission of electricity. Immigrants in Labor Movements: Over time, immigrants demanded a voice and became active in labor movements and politics. They lobbied for protections for the poor and powerless. Many political leaders were supported by immigrants and became powerful in politics. Important immigrant activists included: Mary Harris Jones (Ireland) also known as Mother Jones worked to improve the rights of coal miners; and Samuel Gompers (England) worked for the AFL Union, which was the model that other unions followed.

411 Quick Check What were the challenges that immigrants faced in America?What achievements did immigrants make in America?

412 Lesson 78 Objectives Students will be able to:Explain how cities grew in the late nineteenth century; Explain the opportunities that cities offered people; Explain the rural-to-urban migration and the challenges that it posed; Explain how skyscrapers, mass transit, and electricity each improved standards of living in cities; Explain the advent and importance of City Planning; Explain why and how housing conditions grew worse in cities at the end of the nineteenth century; Explain the public health concerns that cities posed and how cities attempted to solve them; and Explain the safety concerns that the cities posed and how cities attempted to solve them.

413 Urban Migration Late Nineteenth Century Urbanization:Urbanization- expansion of cities and/or an increase in the number of people living in them. Rural life centered on farms and the growing cycle. Work was done outside according to weather. Urban work often centered around factories and people rode trolleys and lived in small apartments. Factory work was year-round and schedule-driven. Expansion of Cities: The first cities were in the northeast, Pacific coast, or along waterways in the west. Railroads connected rural areas to the cities and many migrated in search of jobs in factories or in service industries. Middle class professionals often worked in offices in the cities. Women’s opportunities increased with cities. In addition to factory work, educated women could be teachers or secretaries. Uneducated women could be domestic servants and do piecework. Cities offered poor people the chance to save their money and eventually move up to the middle class (or at least for their children through education). Even the poor enjoyed a higher standards of living. There were also many social opportunities in cities like church, theater, social clubs, museums, and entertainment. Cities Attracted Immigrants: By 1900, some cities were made up of 40% immigrants. Many were recruited by companies or families. Neighborhoods often developed along ethnic lines and this also attracted newer immigrants. Rural-to-Urban Migrants: many farmers faced hard economic times. Technology improvements allowed for more crops to be grown but the supply soon exceeded demand and prices fell. In the 1890s, many farmers left their farms to resettle in the cities and take on wage labor. Not to mention, many liked the excitement that city life brought. The population of Midwest cities like Minneapolis and Chicago increased dramatically in the 1890s. African Americans also moved out of the rural South into cities (mostly Southern cities).

414 Technology Improves City LifeSkyscrapers: Steel was first mass produced for railroads but it was soon used to frame tall buildings. Skyscrapers of 10-stories or more used steel frames. Skyscrapers provided office space and apartment space in cities that ran out of room horizontally. In the 1850s, Elisha Otis invented a safety elevator that wouldn’t fall if the rope broke. Central heating systems were also improved in the 1870s. Architects (new profession) now designed public schools, libraries, train stations, financial institutions, office buildings, and residences. Electricity & Transportation: In 1888, electric streetcars began to be used for mass transit (public systems that could carry large numbers of people fairly inexpensively). Steam engines and horse-pulled trolleys began to be replaced by electric cars. Electricity was quiet, clean, and efficient. Electric lines were not possible in all cities to run the new electric trolleys. Some cities turned to underground subway systems to move large numbers of people more efficiently and without the congestion at street level. In 1897, Boston was the first city to use a subway system, followed by New York City in 1904. Middle and Upper Class people who could afford transportation costs moved to the suburbs (leaving the noise and filth of the city behind) and commuted to work each day. Poorer people remained in the cities. City Planning: as cities grew larger and more complex, architectural firms began to offer city planning services to make cities more functional and beautiful. Daniel Burnham designed the ideal city (called the “White City) for Chicago’s 1893 World’s Fair Columbian Exhibition (to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Columbus’s arrival). The ideal city had boulevards, parks, buildings, and electric streetlights. Zoning helped designate the city into functional sections (commercial, residential, industrial, etc.). Public spaces like parks, libraries, government buildings, and universities were also important aspects of city life. Frederick Law Olmsted designed public parks for several major cities in the late 1800s.

415 Social Issues Created By City LifeHousing Conditions Worsen: Most people crowded into cities and lived within walking distance from their factories and industrial plants. Existing housing was aging and overcrowded and most urban workers lived in tenement housing (multifamily dwellings designed to squeeze in as many families as possible). Sometimes multiple families occupied the same apartments and many people used the space to live in and complete piecework (sewing of clothes or other income generating side work). The cities did not have open air and open land like rural life did, and people were in constant contact with other diverse people (unlike the isolation of rural family farms). Tenements had few windows, insufficient ventilation, little sanitation (or toilets), and were unhealthy and dangerous. Public Health Concerns: In the 1890s, city streets were unpaved, filled with trash, food waste, and littered with rotting dead animals. Epidemics spread rapidly given the unsanitary conditions. Cholera epidemics occurred several times in the 1800s and killed thousands (caused from drinking contaminated water). Cities began to regulate housing, sanitation, sewers, and public health, increasing the standard of living in cities. For example, water began to be taken from reservoirs far from the polluted rivers and lakes near the city. Safety in Cities: There was a constant risk of fire, crime, and conflict in cities. Fires caused from a open fire or gas light could destroy entire cities like the Chicago fire of 1871 (which killed people) and left 100,000 homeless. Professional fire brigades and fire departments began to protect cities from fires. Professional city police began to patrol the streets to protect people from crime. Streetlights lit dark city streets to deter crime. Despite the efforts taken by cities they could not prevent the ethnic and racial tension that continued to exist in city neighborhoods. Gangs appeared as a form of protection and safety and were established based on race, class, and neighborhood loyalties.

416 Quick Check What benefits to life did cities offer people at the turn of the century? What dangers and drawbacks existed at the turn of the century?

417 Problem 59: City Kids The Old Brewery, and the New Mission House at the Five Points (1854) Describe life for the children of the city that the author describes. How was life different depending on a person’s social class?

418 Lesson 79 Objectives Students will be able to:Describe the advances in society made during the late 1800s; Explain why some people called the late 1800s the Golden Age and others called it the Gilded Age; Explain the rise of the Middle Class and conspicuous consumerism; Describe the importance of newspapers in creating a mass culture in the late 1800s; Explain the importance of public schools in the spread of information and creation of mass culture; and Describe the different types of entertainment that the Middle Class resorted to in the late 1800s.

419 Golden Age or Gilded Age?A Golden Age?: Shopping, sports, and reading popular magazines led to a shared American culture. Industrialization and urbanization changed the lives of workers and most people worked for wages. Science, technology, and free enterprise increased the standard of living. Businesses created products and services that made life easier, more fun, and more convenient than ever. Mass production allowed consumers to obtain less expensive products that had previously been too expensive. More products were available than before, leading to conspicuous consumerism (where people bought the newest and latest products on the market). New ways of shopping developed. Rowland H. Macy opened a department store in New York in Others followed (Jordan Marsh in Boston and Marshall Field in Chicago). Mail order catalogues also became a trendy shopping option as bulk shipping rates were reduced. Trademarks were filed on brand name items and people wanted to buy items because of those names. People began to measure success based on what they could buy (new clothing and new technology at home). More shopping led to more jobs, which led to more wealth and buying power. Better health and sanitation increased life expectancies. The Middle Class grew and they had more money to spend on things they chose to buy rather than just things that they needed. The time period is sometimes called the Victorian Era (after the queen of England). The rich built large mansions and the Middle Class aspired to live like the rich. Indoor plumbing became common. Middle class women sometimes had to work in order to maintain their Middle Class status and buy the items that defined them as such. Suburban Middle Class families lived outside of the cities but men left early in the morning and returned late at night as they commuted to work each day. Nevertheless, with their hard work they believed that they could earn more money and buy more “stuff.” The Gilded Age: Mark Twain wrote about late nineteenth century in his 1873 novel, The Gilded Age, where he depicted American society as having a rotten core but covered with golden paint. The label for the era stuck.

420 A New Common Culture Mass Culture Spreads: with the spread of transportation, communication, and advertising, people across the U.S. became more alike. Rich and poor wanted the same clothing, gadgets, and food. Spread of Newspapers: From 1870 to 1900, more than 600 new newspapers helped spread information. Joseph Pulitzer’s Evening World Newspaper was widely read. He believed that newspapers existed to inform people and stir up controversy. Papers were inexpensive because they were partially paid for by advertisements. William Randolph Hearst’s The Morning Journal provided Pulitzer with competition. Ethnic and special interest newspapers also gained in popularity. The Arts: Novels, music, and graphic artists each provided their own commentary on the Gilded Age. Growth of Public Schools: More people could read thanks to the spread of public education. Elementary school education became required and many towns began to offer high schools. The literacy rates climbed to 90% by 1900. There were courses in science, woodworking, and drafting. The curriculum also included civics and business training. Immigrants used the schools to learn the English language. John Dewey began a teacher education program to improve student learning. Colleges and universities expanded and offered specialized training for professionals, and the modern well-rounded liberal arts education got its start in the Gilded Age. Middle Class women could become teachers, social workers, and nurses. New women’s colleges opened and some state universities began to accept women. Schools for African Americans also expanded.

421 A Boom in Popular EntertainmentNew Forms of Entertainment: Clubs, music halls, and sports now attracted Middle Class crowds. Middle Class people also began to take family vacations in the Gilded Age to escape the daily routine. Amusement Parks: In 1884, the world’s first roller coaster opened at Coney Island, New York designed by Lamarcus Thompson. A ride cost ten cents but Thompson made $600 per day. Even the poor city dwellers could afford a day at the amusement park. Outdoor Events: “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show” toured the U.S. and Europe and offered live entertainment that included Cowboy and Indian battles (using Native American actors). It also held a variety of events like riding, roping, and shooting. It also included acts by Annie Oakley and the Sioux leader Sitting Bull. The show helped to shape the popular image of the American West. The Chautauqua Circuit also boomed in popularity as a religious retreat where people went to hear lectures on morals and politics, comic storytelling, bands, and singers. People watched their first “moving pictures” or movies in a Chautauqua tent. Theodore Roosevelt called it “the most American thing in America.” Shows & Entertainment: Vaudeville Variety Shows opened as a type of variety show entertainment that included dancing, singing, and comedy sketches that became popular in the Gilded Age. In 1881, Tony Pastor opened a Vaudeville theater in New York. Nickelodeon Theaters: Movie theaters that charged a nickel for admission also became popular. Music Halls featuring Ragtime Music (upbeat and rhythmic forerunner to Jazz created by African Americans). Technology Expositions displayed the newest machines and gadgets. Professional Sports: Professional Baseball, complete with famous stadiums like Fenway Park and Take Me Out to the Ball Game, written in 1908, opened in the Gilded Age. Horse racing, bicycle racing, boxing, and football also became popular entertainment options. James Naismith invented basketball in Springfield, Massachusetts at the YMCA in 1891. But- was the age golden or gilded?

422 Quick Check Do we engage in conspicuous consumerism today?Was the turn of the century the Golden Age or the Gilded Age? Explain.

423 Problem 60: What is Success?“What is a Successful Life?” Firemen’s Magazine, October 1884. What critique does the author give about the Middle and Upper Classes? What does the author believe defines success? Do you agree? Explain.

424 Lesson 80-81 Objectives Students will be able to:Demonstrate their understanding of the unit objectives through an Industrial Revolution activity.

425 Lesson Objectives Lesson 82: Review- Students will review and refine their understandings of the unit content objectives. Lesson 83: Unit Test- Students will demonstrate understanding of the unit objectives through a unit test.

426 Days Objectives Lesson 84: Final Exam Review- Students will review the course content objectives in preparation for the course Final Examination. Lesson 85: Final Exam- Students will demonstrate their understanding of the course content objectives through performance on the course Final Examination.