1 World War I: “The Great War”What Makes WWI a “World War”? ‘Local Impact and Post-War Politics’ World War I: “The Great War”
2 Local Impact: the ColoniesAfrica: [refer to Oct. 14 lecture] War itself fought in various parts of Africa (in/near German territories) Worst campaign was ‘East Africa’ that drew in White and Black South African troops, British East Africans, Africans from West Africa
3 Africa and Africans in WWIGerman Colonies in Africa 1914 Togoland Cameroon German East Africa South West Africa
4 Local Impact: the ColoniesAfrica: South Africans: ‘whites’ who fought were mostly of British heritage (Afrikaners generally opposed to war or would have preferred to fight on side of Germans) South Africa had only become a Union 1910 following Afrikaner defeat (Boer War): British South Africans in political, economic control – black south Africans no rights at all Role in War affirmed (to South Africa) its right to demand more autonomy: accentuated Afrikaner and Black resentment
5 Local Impact: the ColoniesAfrica: - long-term destruction local economies where war fought, where recruitment of men was high Largest impact would occur when soldiers who fought elsewhere (whether Africa or Europe) returned home [video ‘Story of Africa’, add’l rdgs] Initiated new generation of ‘Nationalists’ who would succeed by the 1950s-1960s.
6 Local Impact: the ColoniesIndia: In spite of British ‘worries’, India major supporter of war: both in men (fought in Europe and Middle East) and as ‘base’ from which campaigns launched into Ottoman territories Huge losses on Western Front ‘home front’ also felt war: because of concerns that those who did not support war might be tempted by religious ‘cause’ or simply resent British rule enough to use war as moment to ‘resist….
7 Local Impact: the ColoniesIndia: : British government had put in place repressive ‘emergency laws’ (e.g. imprisonment without trial) Meant to ‘temporarily’ control potential subversive activities. Assumed locally that measures would be revoked by the end of the war Also expected more political autonomy as ‘reward’ for wartime sacrifices (at home and in the trenches)
8 Local Impact: the ColoniesIndia: 1918: report presented to British Parliament did recommend limited local self-government. Instead: Government passed the Rowlatt Acts 1919 which essentially extended repressive wartime measures Nothing was offered in terms of ‘political rights’
9 Local Impact: the ColoniesIndia: - Response: widespread anger, discontent all regions April 1919: prominent leader ‘Gandhi’ (more next week) called for country-wide strike In Punjab: local arrests of leaders (in connection with strike) sparked massive public protest buildings looted, burned; several foreign nationals killed, Christian missionary beaten .
10 Local Impact: the ColoniesIndia: Return to Order: a military ‘task’ – included complete ban on public gatherings Amritsar: protest against ban brought at least 10,000 people out [video says 20,000] Military fired on them: about 400 killed, at least 1200 wounded
11 Local Impact: the ColoniesIndia: Dead and wounded left in square Martial law declared: gave rights to public flogging, other ‘humiliating’ punishments As narrator says in video: ‘a turning point in India’s history’ – Amritsar marked point-of-no-return with respect to British-India relations - Marked beginning of generation Indian Nationalism that would bring about ‘Independence’
12 Local Impact: Asia Japan: [see lecture Oct. 16; 19th c. Industrialization, modernization, militarization – “Mejii Reforms” Text 800-6] Success of ‘Mejii Reforms’ seen in late 1890s victories in China; 1905 most important (in terms of regional/international profile) rapid victory over Russia WWI: Actively engaged in ousting Germany from China foothold Navy protecting Allies’ supply/troop ships: effectively targeting German submarines
13 Local Impact: Asia China: [see lecture on Qing Dynasty 19th C.]late 1895: defeat by Japanese on heels humiliating treaties forced on Qing by European powers Led to strong reaction against traditional monarchy Emperor convinced to move towards Constitutional Monarchy but Empress Dowager determined to protect traditional position: imprisoned Emperor
14 Local Impact: Asia China: - violence swept across country: by 1900 secret society ‘Boxers’ emerged as leaders movement attributing country’s economic, political weaknesses on ‘Foreigners’ Led to social, political chaos But generated huge domestic support: enough to enact siege of ‘Foreigner’s neighbourhood’ in Capital
15 Local Impact: Asia China: - created unprecedented ‘Foreign’ response (including Japanese who had ‘interests’ in Qing territory): united military forces to lift siege Qing forced to pay indemnity of 450 million oz silver Suspend civil service exams: hit at core of power/class structure of Qing Dynasty Ultimately more important than loss of territory per se
16 Local Impact: Asia China: 1911: the ‘Last Emperor’ overthrownLate 19th-century class of ‘foreign educated’ (US, ironically Japan) intellectuals became active early 20th C. Sun Yatsen: US educated, continued education in (British) Hong Kong, politically active, acquired foreign funding Change, if it was to happen, had to be Revolutionary The 1911 REVOLUTION overthrew not only the Qing Dynasty but China’s whole ‘history’ of political tradition
17 Local Impact: Asia China:nationalist regime followed but failed under influence of ‘military man’ – similar to those in South America who did not with to relinquish power but rather used it to build his own As WWI began, China was essentially under a ‘warlord’ dictatorship: following his death 1916 – decentralized system of warlords in turn “Their wars, taxes and corruption created terrible suffering” [Text p 902]
18 Local Impact: Asia China:This is context in which we must see Japan’s expansion into China’s Shandong and southern Manchuria provinces (taking of German territory but pushing it further into Manchuria) Growing middle class, young Chinese ‘patriots’ increasingly enraged [Text 902-3]
19 Local Impact: Asia China:May : ‘5000 students in capital city exploded against decision of Paris Peace Conference (below) to leave Shandong Peninsula in Japanese hands” [Text 902] Beginning of ‘May Fourth Movement’: fighting both foreign control and local ‘warlordism’ Looked to similarly anti-Imperialist movement from Russia – Bolshevik Revolution: but Post-War China would take different path
20 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Impact of defeat in Russian-Japanese war 1904 significant: led to first ‘moderate’ revolution 1905 Institution of a ‘duma’ (sort of limited representative assembly) but still under control Tsar [equivalent of Constitutional Monarchy in many ways] Industrialization recent but successful in creating working class; still most of the population (80%) peasant – seasonal urban labour increasingly common
21 Local Impact: Russia Russia:: efforts made to modernize agriculture – create ‘capitalist farmers’ out of ‘feudal peasants’. Overnight. Internal dissension between an elite --including landlords, royalty, intellectuals, new middle class, wealthy military officer; and ‘the rest’ –urban workers, rank-and-file military, peasants WWI: Tsar Nicholas II ‘embraced’ opportunity to protect Russia! Seen as opportunity to overcome domestic class differences, re-establish authority of Royal House
22 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Turn to military nationalism was as disastrous in WWI as it had been in 1904 – only worse as WWI was of a totally different magnitude In spite of relatively rapid advances militarily: no match for Germany Also ‘lacked leadership’ [text 864,5]: Tsar attempted to use war to reinforce his own position – failed miserably
23 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Fact that Tsarina was German born did not help Worse: she relied on council (almost ‘magical’) of the infamous Rasputin Failures on war front, combined with distasteful Tsarina/Rasputin . . .
24 Local Impact: Russia Russia:In context of ongoing problems for peasants: landlords NOT willingly giving up land And workers: not being paid, literally lacking bread Led to demands for ‘PEACE, LAND and BREAD’ : widespread, frequent strikes, demonstrations, protests, marches….
25 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Petrograd, march 1917: women’s march for bread sparked riots that spread Soldiers/police ordered to restore peace joined the protesters Duma declared its own gov’t: Tsar abdicated
26 Local Impact: Russia Russia:New ‘provisional government’ had only partial support Another group representing the ‘masses’ formed in St Petersburg “Petrograd Soviet” [Text p.867] Challenged what was now seen as ‘middle class’ government One key decision: Duma supported continuing Russia’s role in WWI
27 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Socialist ideals, especially as developed by Marx and Engels [see ‘1848 Revolution’ lectures] had been embraced by young, educated Russians – like Vladmir Lenin (born into middle class, like counterparts in Europe and elsewhere) Tied into late 19th century politics: brother killed for plotting to kill Tsar 1887 Spent many years in Western Europe ‘exile’: introduced to Marxism
28 Local Impact: Russia Russia:As law student, studied Marxism: developed interpretation that seemed to ‘fit’ Russian situation Capitalism would not destroy itself: revolution was needed Full industrialization/proletariat (working class) not necessary: peasants in army, navy could be mobilized Leadership could/should create revolution: ‘vanguard of the proletariat’ In other words: Revolution could be brought to Russia!
29 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Not without opposition (‘Mensheviks’) but in October 1917: Bolsheviks gained majority in Petrograd Soviet followed by physical seizure government: soldiers loyal to Bolsheviks took over government buildings, arrested government members Bolshevik majority recognized power as passing to ‘soviets’ (workers groups), Lenin head of new regime
30 Local Impact: Russia Russia:“Provisional Workers and Peasants Government”: supported peasants actions in taking land from landlords, church [providing the promised ‘LAND’] gave local workers control of factories [‘BREAD’] 1918: signed Treaty with Germany [‘PEACE’] – gave up all of western territories and 1/3 Russia’s population
31 Local Impact: Russia Areas Lost to Russia byTreaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918
32 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Terms treaty (seen as humiliating – peace, yes but not at ‘ANY price’) Bolsheviks had lost power in first elections following take-over: effectively Lenin ruled as dictator, constituent assembly (of soviets) disbanded led to military opposition from all sides (south, Ukraine, Siberia, west of Petrograd): ‘White Armies’ country plunged into Civil War Nov to Oct 1922
33 Local Impact: Russia Russian Civil War
34 Local Impact: Russia Russia:As Allies met in Paris to ‘shape post-war world’, Russia at war with itself Bolsheviks applied ‘total war’ concept: no distinction between civilian, military – everyone was part of ‘army’ in some fashion seized grain stocks from peasants to feed army, nationalized banks, industry: total mobilization for war
35 Local Impact: Russia Russia:Made use of Tsarist police to hunt down subversives: executed some 250,000 ‘class enemies’ Western governments supported ‘White armies’: ineffective – but added to ‘Bolsheviks patriotism’ 1922: ‘Red Army’ victorious but 125,000 ‘Reds’ and 175,000 ‘Whites’ (and Poles) killed in battle Soviet Russia joined with Transcaucasia, Byelorussia, Ukraine to become Soviet Union
36 Post-War World: the TreatiesParis Peace Conference: between January 1919 ad August 1920, series of ‘treaties’, agreements, principles that would reshape post-war world Most significant: Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Sevres (followed by Treaty Lausanne) “Wilson’s Fourteen Points” League of Nations Mandates
37 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Versailles: Controversial treaty dealing with Germany Stripped it of colonies (in Africa given to France, Britain, South Africa; in Asia to Japan) Industrial area of Alsace-Lorraine returned to France Germany prohibited from re-arming, building military Germany (and Austria) declared “Responsible” for the war and therefore responsible for its costs: reparation payments to be made (actual amount not yet decided)
38 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Versailles: Controversial: why? France wanted ‘more’, including buffer-zone to protect it from Germany: had to settle for defense agreement with US and Britain as compromise Britain wanted some ‘revenge’ but agreed to go along with US: worried about revolution/war in Russia - Also: Germany had been important pre-war market – wanted it rebuilt
39 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Versailles: Controversial: why? not interested in punishing Germany more concerned about ‘international’ issues: League of Nations (below) In the end: US senate refused to ratify treaty or Defense agreement [Britain then followed suit re: defense leaving France ‘vulnerable’] never joined League of Nations created by own President
40 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Versailles: Controversial: why? Germany: resented the Treaty and everything it represented debate (today) about how ‘unfair’ it was or wasn’t Reparations key point of disagreement: Germany unable to make required level annual payment Requested three-year moratorium: France refused
41 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Versailles: Controversial: why? 1922-3: France, Belgium occupied industrial-rich Ruhr Valley led to international ‘incident’, economic disaster for Germany: solution to ‘print money’ led to uncontrollable inflation – crisis with long-term consequences [later lecture] 1924: ‘Dawes Plan’ linking payments to Germany’s economic performance, international circulation of ‘loan dollars’ had quick but short-term impact [see Textbook p.874]
42 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Sevres 1920: - immediately war ended French, British troops occupied Constantinople: imposed Treaty of Sevres Broke up what was left of Ottoman Empire: divided it between Britain, France, Italy and Greece Greece brought into war with promises of Ottoman territories with large Greek populations – resurrection of old ‘Byzantine Empire’
43 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Sevres/Lausanne (1923):
44 Post-War World: the TreatiesGreece According to Treaty of Sevres
45 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Sevres 1920: - 1919: Greek army (arriving on British ships) established themselves on Smyrna coast and began to move inland Although exhausted from war, Greek occupation stirred remnants of nationalism [see quotation from ‘young Turkish woman’, textbook 893] War hero Mustapha Kemal began resistance movement ‘in face of Sultan’s cowardice’ as it was seen
46 Post-War World: the TreatiesTreaty of Sevres 1920/Lausanne 1923: - year of Treaty was also year of war, defeats for Turks 1921: Kemal’s forces successful in Ankara (nationalist centre) British/Greeks requested peace on new terms: Treaty of Lausanne Independent Turkey recognized – without Arab provinces
47 Post-War World: the TreatiesKemal known as ‘Ataturk’ – “father of the Turks” Modern Turkey not only about geography: ‘revolution’ Secularism decreed, written into new Constitution Range of social and religious changes, including replacement of Arabic script with Turkish script using Roman letters – used to spread literacy Industrialization, urban growth ‘modernization’: new nation state
48 Post-War World: the TreatiesSykes-Picot Agreement 1917: [return to significance] Treaty of Sevres (1920) had not only been humiliating for the Ottomans, had also reflected strength of western European Imperialism And ‘tactics’ by which Britain, France had fought WWI Treaty based on secret agreement between them from 1917: Sykes-Picot Accord [see Video: Promises and Betrayal]
49 Post-War World: the TreatiesSykes-Picot Accord 1917 Light Shaded = Indirect Control ‘Influence’ Dark Shaded = Direct Control ‘Mandate’
50 Post-War World: the TreatiesLeague of Nations: - US President Wilson’s main ‘tool’ for re-ordering international scene based on idea of ‘graded mandates’: territories that were categorized according to how close they were to being able to govern themselves as independent nations given to European (in this case, South Africa included) powers under whose ‘tutelage’ they would move towards autonomy
51 Post-War World: the TreatiesLeague of Nations Mandates: - all German colonies in Africa (divided between Britain, France, South Africa, Belgium) All Middle East (former Ottoman Territories): - France: Syria (divided into Lebanon, Syria) - Britain: Palestine (divided into Transjordan, Palestine); Iraq
52 Post-War World: the Treaties“Wilson’s Fourteen Points”: Suggested as basic principles of ‘new international order’ (League of Nations represented administration of them) most controversial, provocative article was… Article XII. “The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development . . .” Understood by Arabs to include Middle East region: clearly contradicted Mandates
53 Post-War World: the TreatiesMassive Arab objection: Syria (French Mandate) Article #3: “Considering the fact that the Arabs inhabiting the Syrian area are not naturally less gifted than other more advanced races and that they are by no means less developed than the Bulgarians, Serbians, Greeks and Rumanians at the beginning of their independence, we protest against Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations placing us among the nations in their middle stage of development which stand in need of a mandatory power.” [Resolution of the General Syrian Congress at Damascas, 892]
54 Post-War World: the TreatiesMassive Arab objection: Syria (French Mandate) Article #7 “We oppose the pretensions of the Zionists to create a Jewish commonwealth in the southern part of Syria, known as Palestine, and oppose Zionist migration to any part of our country; for we do not acknowledge their title but consider them a grave peril to our people from the national, economical and political points of vie. Our Jewish compatriots shall enjoy our common rights and assume the common responsibilities.” [Resolution of the General Syrian Congress at Damascus, 893]
55 Post-War World: the Treaties
56 Post-War World: the TreatiesMandate of Palestine (left) Emirate of Transjordan
57 Post-War World: the Treaties
58 Post-War World: the TreatiesPalestine: also declared Mandated Territory but further complicated by another ‘secret’ correspondence Responding to Jewish Zionists who offered to act in British interests ‘protecting Middle Eastern territories’ (Palestine), Lord Balfour expressed promise that British Government would facilitate goal of a ‘homeland’ This was not an official document: British used it to leverage ‘homeland’ for Jews from League of Nations
59 Post-War World: the TreatiesThe Balfour Declaration - ‘Declaration’ original part of informal correspondence November 1917: "His Majesty's Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object. It being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.”
60 Post-War World: the TreatiesConsequences: Arabs felt betrayed Palestine: contradictory ‘promises’ of homeland did not satisfy Arabs or Jews Mandate System was rightly seen as ‘extension’ of Imperialism under another name! [continued in next lecture]